Wusun

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
class=notpageimage|
The Wusun and neighbouring polities circa 200 BCE, before their westward migration
Rider burial mound Tenlik (III.-II. B.C.) The Tenlik kurgan is associated with the Wusun.[1]

The Wusun (Chinese: 烏孫; pinyin: Wūsūn; Eastern Han Chinese *ʔɑ-suən < Old Chinese (140 BCE - 436 CE): *Ɂâ-sûn)[2] were an ancient semi-nomadic steppe people mentioned in Chinese records from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD.

The Wusun originally lived between the

Ili River valley in Zhetysu, Dzungaria and Tian Shan, which had formerly been inhabited by the Saka. The Wusun then resettled in Gansu
as vassals of the Xiongnu. In 133–132 BC, the Wusun drove the Yuezhi out of the Ili Valley and settled the area.

The Wusun then became close allies of the

Rouran. They possibly became subsumed into the later Hephthalites
.

Etymology

Wusun is a modern pronunciation of the

Chinese Characters '烏孫'. The Chinese name '烏孫' (Wūsūn) literally means wū 'crow, raven' + sūn 'grandson, descendant'.[4] There are several theories about the origin of the name.[5]

Canadian Sinologist

Edwin Pulleyblank reconstructed the pronunciation of 烏孫' Wūsūn as in Middle Chinese as ou-suən, from Old Chinese aĥ-smən and linked the Wusun to the Άσμίραιοι Asmiraioi, who inhabited modern Issyk-Kul and Semirechiye and were mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography (VI.16.3).[6][7] Another theory links them to the Issedones.[8]

Sinologist Victor H. Mair compared Wusun with

Old Indic aśvin 'the horsemen', the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods.[10]

Étienne de la Vaissière identifies the Wusun with the wδ'nn'p, mentioned on Kultobe inscriptions as enemies of the Sogdian-speaking Kangju confederation. Wδ'nn'p contains two morphemes n'p "people" and *wδ'n [wiðan], which is cognate with Manichaean Parthian wd'n and means "tent". Vaissière hypothesized that the Wusun likely spoke an Iranian language closely related to Sogdian, permitting Sogdians to translate their endonym as *wδ'n [wiðan] and Chinese to transcribe their endonym with a native Chinese /s/ standing for a foreign dental fricative. Therefore, Vaissière reconstructs Wusun's endonym as *Wəθan "[People of the] Tent(s)".[11]

History

Early history

Migration of the Wusun

The Wusun were first mentioned by Chinese sources as living together with the Yuezhi between the Qilian Mountains and Dunhuang (Gansu).[12][13][14][15] although different locations have been suggested for these toponyms.[16]

Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremities of the Eurasian Steppe by the Iranian peoples in the 2nd millennium BCE.[17]

Around 210–200 BCE, prince

Mongolian Plain, subjugating several peoples.[19] Around 176 BCE Modu Chanyu launched a fierce raid against the Yuezhi.[15] Around 173 BCE, the Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun,[15] at that time a small nation,[20] killing their king (Kunmi Chinese: 昆彌 or Kunmo Chinese: 昆莫) Nandoumi (Chinese: 難兜靡).[20]

According to legend Nandoumi's infant son Liejiaomi was left in the wild. He was miraculously saved from hunger being suckled by a she-wolf, and fed meat by ravens.

Sogdians, or both could represent an Indo-Aryan influence, or even the origin of the royal Ashina Türks.[26]

In 162 BCE, the Yuezhi were finally defeated by the Xiongnu, after which they fled

Ili Valley in the Zhetysu and Dzungaria area.[27] The Sai would subsequently migrate into South Asia, where they founded various Indo-Scythian kingdoms.[15] After the Yuezhi retreat the Wusun subsequently settled the modern province of Gansu, in the valley of the Wushui-he (lit. "Raven Water-River"), as vassals of the Xiongnu.[20]
It is not clear whether the river was named after the tribe or vice versa.

Migration to the Ili Valley

The Xiongnu ruler was impressed with

Gangetic plain and played an important role in the development of the Silk Road and the transmission of Buddhism to China.[13]

The Wusun subsequently took over the Ili Valley, expanding over a large area and trying to keep away from the Xiongnu. According to Shiji, Wusun was a state located west of the Xiongnu.[28] When the Xiongnu ruler died, Liejiaomi refused to serve the Xiongnu.[20] The Xiongnu then sent a force against the Wusun but were defeated, after which the Xiongnu even more than before considered Liejiaomi a supernatural being, avoiding conflict with him.[20]

Establishing relations with the Han

Wusun and their neighbours around 200 CE.

After settling in the Ili Valley the Wusun became so strong that the Han was compelled to win their friendship in alliance.[1] Chinese sources name the Scythian Sai (Saka), and the Yuezhi who are often identified as Tocharians, among the people of the Wusun state in the Zhetysu and Dzungaria area.[29] The Wusun realm probably included both Yuezhi and Saka.[1] It is clear that the majority of the population consisted of linguistically Iranian Saka tribes.[1]

In 125 BCE, under the

Ferghana), and to the south were various city states.[35] The Royal Court of the Wusun, the walled city of Chigu (Chinese: 赤谷; pinyin: chìgǔ; lit. 'Red Valley'), was located in a side valley leading to Issyk Kul.[1][36] Lying on one of the branches of the Silk Road Chigu was an important trading centre, but its exact location has not been established.[1]

According to

Shiji
:

Wusun as a nation, has its great Kunmi [monarch] presiding at Chigu City which is 8900

Sakas, the latter king went south to Bolor (Baltistan) whereby the Yuezhi took over and settled on the land. (...) Later, when the Yuezhi moved west to subjugate Bactria, the Wusun Kunmo replaced them and lived there. For that reason, the Wusun population is admixed with Sakas and Yuezhi peoples.

— Sima Qian, Shiji[37]

The Wusun approved of a possible alliance, and Zhang Qian was sent as ambassador in 115 BCE.[1] According to the agreement the Wusun would jointly attack the Xiongnu with the Han, while they were offered a Han princess in marriage and the return of their original Gansu homeland (heqin).[1] Due to fear of the Xiongnu, the Wusun however had second thoughts and suggested sending a delegation to the Han rather than moving their capital further west.[1][14]

As Han allies

Some time after the Han-Wusun negotiations had ended, the Han inflicted several blows to the Xiongnu.

Ferghana Valley, the Wusun became the main suppliers of horses for the Han.[38] The Xiongnu had however also sent a princess to marry Liejiaomi, and the Xiongnu princess was declared his senior consort, with Xijun becoming his junior wife.[1] Since Liejiaomi was already an old man, Xijun was however married to his successor Cenzou (Chinese: 岑陬), to which Wu agreed.[14] Xijun wrote a famous poem, the Beichouge (Chinese: 悲愁歌), in which she complains about her exile in the land of the "barbarians
":

My family sent me off to be married on the other side of heaven. They sent me a long way to a strange land, to the king of Wusun. A domed lodging is my dwelling place with walls of felt. Meat is my food, with fermented milk as the sauce. I live with constant thoughts of my home, my heart is full of sorrow. I wish I were a golden swan, returning to my home country.[14][39]

Xijun bore the Wusun a daughter but died soon afterward, at which point the Han court sent

Princess Jieyou (Chinese: 解憂公主) to succeed her.[14] After the death of Cenzou, Jieyou married Wengguimi (Chinese: 翁歸靡), Cenzou's cousin and successor. Jieyou lived for fifty years among the Wusun and bore five children, including the oldest Yuanguimi (Chinese: 元貴靡), whose half-brother Wujiutu (Chinese: 烏就屠) was born to a Xiongnu mother.[14] She sent numerous letters to the Han requesting assistance against the Xiongnu.[14]

Around 80 BCE, the Wusun were attacked by the Xiongnu, who inflicted a devastating defeat upon them.

Cheshi (Turpan region), a previous ally of the Xiongnu, giving them direct contact with the Wusun.[14] Afterwards the Wusun allied with the Dingling and Wuhuan to counter Xiongnu attacks.[14] After their crushing victory against the Xiongnu the Wusun increased in strength, achieving significant influence over the city-states of the Tarim Basin.[1] The son of the Kunmi became the ruler of Yarkand, while his daughter became the wife of the lord of Kucha.[1] They came to play a role as a third force between the Han and the Xiongnu.[1]

Around 64 BCE, according to Hanshu, Chinese agents were involved in a plot with a Wusun kunmi known as Wengguimi ("Fat King"), to kill a Wusun kunmi known to the Chinese as Nimi ("Mad King"). A Chinese deputy envoy called Chi Tu who brought a doctor to attend to Nimi was punished by castration by the Han dynasty when he returned to China for treating the mad king's illness instead of killing him which the Han court ordered them to do.[40][41]

In 64 BCE another Han princess was sent to Kunmi Wengguimi, but he died before her arrival. Han emperor Xuan then permitted the princess to return, since Jieyou had married the new Kunmi, Nimi (Chinese: 尼靡), the son of Cenzou. Jieyou bore Nimi the son Chimi (Chinese: 鴟靡). Prince Wujiutu later killed Nimi, his half-brother. Fearing the wrath of the Han, Wujiutu adopted the title of Lesser Kunmi, while Yuanguimi was given the title Greater Kunmi. The Han accepted this system and bestowed both of them with the imperial seal. After both Yuanguimi and Chimi were dead, Jieyou asked Emperor Xuan for permission to return to China. She died in 49 BCE. Over the next decades the institution of Greater and Lesser Kunmi continued, with the Lesser Kunmi being married to a Xiongnu princess and the Greater Kunmi married to a Han princess.[14]

In 5 BCE, during the reign of Wuzhuliu Chanyu (8 BCE – CE 13), the Wusun attempted to raid Yueban pastures, but Wuzhuliu repulsed them, and the Wusun commander had to send his son to the Yueban court as a hostage. The forceful intervention of the Chinese usurper Wang Mang and internal strife brought disorder, and in 2 BCE one of the Wusun chieftains brought 80,000 Wusun to Kangju, asking for help against the Chinese. In a vain attempt to reconcile with China, he was duped and killed in 3 CE.[42][43]

In 2 CE, Wang Mang issued a list of four regulations to the allied Xiongnu that the taking of any hostages from Chinese vassals, i.e. Wusun, Wuhuan and the statelets of the Western Regions, would not be tolerated.[44]

In 74 CE the Wusun are recorded as having sent tribute to the Han military commanders in Cheshi.[14] In 80 CE Ban Chao requested assistance from the Wusun against the city-state Quchi (Kucha) in the Tarim Basin.[14] The Wusun were subsequently rewarded with silks, while diplomatic exchanges were resumed.[14] During the 2nd century CE the Wusun continued their decline in political importance.[14]

Later history

In the 5th century CE the Wusun were pressured by the

Khitan Liao.[46]

Physical appearance

Gujin Tushu Jicheng
, 18th century.

The Hanshu and Shiji do not make any special note of the physical appearance of the Wusun. The first description of the Wusun's physical appearance is found in a

Western Han dynasty book of divination, the Jiaoshi Yilin, which describes the women of the Wusun as "with deep eyesockets, dark, ugly: their preferences are different, past their prime [still] without spouse."[47][48] A later 7th century commentary to the Hanshu by Yan Shigu[49]
says:

Among the barbarians (戎; Róng) in the Western Regions, the look of the Wusun is the most unusual. The present barbarians (胡人; húrén) who have green eyes and red hair, and look like macaque monkeys, are the offspring of this people.[49][50][51]

Initially, when only a few number of skulls from Wusun territory were known, the Wusun were recognized as a

Mongoloid admixture.[49] Later, in a more thorough study by Soviet archaeologists of eighty-seven skulls of Zhetysu, the six skulls of the Wusun period were determined to be purely Caucasoid or close to it.[49][52]

Language

The Wusun are generally believed to be an

Sogdians, in Central Asia, besides other non-Chinese peoples.[65] Archaeological evidence also supports the idea that Wusuns were Iranian speakers.[66]

Edwin G. Pulleyblank has suggested that the Wusun, along with the Yuezhi, the Dayuan, the Kangju and the people of Yanqi, could have been Tocharian-speaking.[67][68][69][70] Colin Masica and David Keightley also suggest that the Wusun were Tocharian-speaking.[71][72] Sinor finds it difficult to include the Wusun within the Tocharian category of Indo-European until further research.[54] J. P. Mallory has suggested that the Wusun contained both Tocharian and Iranian elements.[63][73] Central Asian scholar Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were Indo-Aryan-speaking.[10] The first syllable of the Wusun royal title Kunmi was probably the royal title while the second syllable referred to the royal family name.[10][74] Beckwith specifically suggests an Indo-Aryan etymology of the title Kunmi.[10]

In the past, some scholars suggested that the Wusun spoke a

Sassanid Empire), as well as Sanskrit bhaga and Russian bog. According to Encyclopædia Iranica: "The origin of beg is still disputed, though it is mostly agreed that it is a loan-word. Two principal etymologies have been proposed. The first etymology is from a Middle Iranian form of Old Iranian baga; though the meaning would fit since the Middle Persian forms of the word often mean 'lord,' used of the king or others. The second etymology is from Chinese 伯 (MC pˠæk̚ > bó) 'eldest (brother), (feudal) lord'. Gerhard Doerfer on the other hand seriously considers the possibility that the word is genuinely Turkish. Whatever the truth may be, there is no connection with Turkish berk, Mongolian berke 'strong' or Turkish bögü, Mongolian böge 'wizard, shaman.'"[81][82]

Economy

According to the Shiji (c. 123) and the Hanshu (c. 96), Liu Xijun, a daughter of the Han prince Liu Jian, was sent to the ruler (Kunmi or Kunmo) of the Wusun between 110 BCE and 105 BCE. She describes them as nomads who lived in felt tents, ate raw meat and drank fermented mare's milk.[83] Some early Chinese descriptions of the people were pejorative, describing them as "bad, greedy and unreliable, and much given to robbery", but their state was also described as very strong.[84] However, the Wusun were also noted for their harmony towards their neighbours, even though they were constantly raided by the Xiongnu and Kangju.

The principal activity of the Wusun was cattle-raising, but they also practiced agriculture. Since the climate of Zhetysu and Dzungaria did not allow constant wandering, they probably wandered with each change of season in the search of pasture and water. Numerous archaeological finds have found querns and agricultural implements and bones of domesticated animals, suggesting a semi-nomadic pastoral economy.[1]

Social structure

The social structure of the Wusun resembled that of the Xiongnu. They were governed by the Great Kunmi, whose power was hereditary. The Great Kunmi and his two sons, who commanded the east and left flanks of the Wusun realm, each commanded a force of 10,000 men.[1] The Wusun also fielded a regular army, with each freeman being considered a warrior. Their administrative apparatus was fairly sophisticated, consisting of sixteen officials.[1] The Great Kunmi was assisted by a council of elders, which limited his power to some degree.[1] The Wusun elite maintained itself through tribute from conquered tribes, war booty and trading profits. The booty acquired by the Wusun in their frequent conflicts enabled the administrative elite and members of the Kunmi's guard to amass enormous riches.[1]

Wusun society seems to have been highly

slaves, mostly prisoners of war. The Wusun are reported as having captured 10,000 slaves in a raid against the Xiongnu.[1] Wusun slaves mainly laboured as servants and craftsmen, although the freemen formed the core of the Wusun economy.[1]

Archaeology

Numerous sites belonging to the Wusun period in Zhetysu and the Tian Shan have been excavated. Most of the cemeteries are burial grounds with the dead interred in pit-graves, referred to as the Chil-pek group, which probably belong the local Saka population.[1] A second group of kurgans with burials in lined "catacomb" chamber graves, of the so-called Aygîrdzhal group, are found together with the Chil-pek tombs from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE, and have been attributed to the Yuezhi.[1] Graves of the Wusun period typically contain personal belongings, with the burials of the Aygîrdzhal group often containing weapons.[1]

A famous find is the

Shaman discovered at an altitude of 2,300 m, near Almaty, containing jewellery, clothing, head-dress and nearly 300 gold objects. A beautiful diadem of the Kargali burial attest to the artistic skill of these ancient jewellers.[1] Another find at Tenlik in eastern Zhetysu contained the grave of a high-ranking warrior, whose clothing had been decorated with around 100 golden bosses.[1]

Connection to Western histography

Some scholars such as Peter B. Golden have proposed that the Wusun may have been identical with the people described by Herodotus (IV. 16–25) and in Ptolemy's Geography as Issedones (also Issedoni, Issedoi or Essedoni).[8][85][86] Their exact location of their country in Central Asia is unknown. The Issedones are "placed by some in Western Siberia and by others in Chinese Turkestan," according to E. D. Phillips.[87]

Geographica.[88]

Genetics

See also: Sintashta culture § Genetics, and Andronovo culture § Genetics
Hunter Gatherers from West Siberia
, respectively.

A genetic study published in

U5b2c. The authors of the study found that the Wusun and Kangju had less East Asian admixture than the Xiongnu and the Saka. Both the Wusun and Kangju were suggested to be descended from Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) of the Late Bronze Age who admixed with Siberian hunter-gatherers and peoples related to the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex.[66]

One theory has suggested that the Uissun tribe of Kazakhstan is descended from the Wusun, based on the superficial similarity of the ethnonym 'Uissun' to Wusun.[90] A 2020 study could not find support for this theory, as the Uissun have a very low frequency of Haplogroup R1a (6%), most of it belonging to the Z94 clade rather than the Iranian Z93 clade.[91] Most of the Uissun lineages were typical of Mongols, supporting their historically attested Mongolian origin.[92]

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References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Zadneprovskiy 1994, pp. 458–462
  2. ^ Schuessler 2014, p. 264.
  3. ^ 《汉书·西域传》：乌孙国，大昆弥治赤谷城，去长安八千九百里。户十二万，口六十三万，胜兵十八万八千八百人。……故服匈奴，后盛大，取羁属，不肯往朝会。东与匈奴、西北与康居、西与大宛、南与城郭诸国相接。本塞地也，大月氏西破走塞王，塞王南越县度，大月氏居其地。后乌孙昆莫击破大月氏，大月氏徙、西臣大夏，而乌孙昆莫居之，故乌孙民有塞种、大月氏种云。
  4. ISBN 978-1400865130
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  5. ^ 王明哲, 王炳華 (Mingzhe Wang & Binhua Wang): 從文獻與考古資料論烏孫歷史的幾個重大問題 (Important questions about the history of Wusun arising from the contemporary documents and archaeological investigations). In: 烏孫研究 (Wusun research), 1, 新疆人民出版社 (People's publisher Xinjiang), Ürümqi 1983, S. pp. 1–42.
  6. ^ Pulleyblank 1963a, p. 136.
  7. ^ Lieu, Samuel N.C. (2014) Places and Peoples in Central Asia and in the Graeco-Roman Near East: A Multilingual Gazetteer Compiled for the Serica Project from Selected Pre-Islamic Sources, p. 23
  8. ^ a b Golden 1992, p. 51.
  9. ^ Pulleyblank 2002, pp. 426–427.
  10. ^ a b c d Beckwith 2009, pp. 376–377
  11. ^ de la Vaissière, Étienne (2013). "Iranian in Wusun? A tentative reinterpretation of the Kultobe Inscription". Commentationes Iranicae. Vladimiro F. Aaron Livschits Nonagenario Donum Natalicium: 320–325.
  12. ^ Hanshu 《漢書·張騫李廣利傳》 Original text 臣居匈奴中，聞烏孫王號昆莫。昆莫父難兜靡本與大月氏俱在祁連、焞煌間，小國也。tr. "[I, your majesty's] minister, while living among the Xiongnu, heard that the Wusun king was called Kunmo; Kunmo's father Nandoumi had originally been dwelling together with the Great Yuezhi in a small state between Qilian and Dunhuang."
  13. ^ a b c Beckwith 2009, pp. 84–85
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u "Chinese History – Wusun 烏孫". Chinaknowledge. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  15. ^ a b c d e f Benjamin, Craig (October 2003). "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia". Transoxiana Webfestschrift. 1 (Ēran ud Anērān). Transoxiana. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
  16. ^ Liu, Xinru, Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies (2001)
  17. ^ Beckwith 2009, pp. 29–38
  18. ^ Beckwith 2009, pp. 380–383
  19. ^ Enoki, Koshelenko & Haidary 1994, pp. 171–191
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i Beckwith 2009, pp. 6–7
  21. ^ François & Hulsewé 1979, p. 215
  22. ^ Shiji 《史記·大宛列傳》 Original text: 匈奴攻殺其父，而昆莫生棄於野。烏嗛肉蜚其上，狼往乳之。
  23. ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 6
  24. ^ Watson 1993, pp. 237–238
  25. ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 2
  26. ^ a b Sinor & Klyashtorny 1996, pp. 328–329
  27. ^ Hanshu 《漢書·張騫李廣利傳》 Original text 時，月氏已為匈奴所破，西擊塞王。
  28. ^ Shiji 《史記·大宛列傳》 Original text: 匈奴西邊小國也
  29. ^ François & Hulsewé 1979, p. 145
  30. ^ Yap 2019, p. 164.
  31. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
    Retrieved 29 May 2015.
  32. ^ Hanshu, ch.61 & 96.[full citation needed]
  33. ^ Hanshu 《漢書·卷九十六下》 西域傳 Original text: 本塞地也，大月氏西破走塞王，塞王南越縣度。大月氏居其地。後烏孫昆莫擊破大月氏，大月氏徙西臣大夏，而烏孫昆莫居之，故烏孫民有塞種、大月氏種雲。
  34. ^ So 2009, p. 133
  35. ^ 《漢書·卷九十六下》 Original text: 東與匈奴、西北與康居、西與大宛、南與城郭諸國相接。
  36. ^ Hill (2009), "Appendix I: Chigu 赤谷 (Royal Court of the Wusun Kunmo)," pp. 527–531.[full citation needed]
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  39. ^ Wood 2004, p. 57
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  42. ^ Gumilev L.N. "12". History of Hun People. Science (in Russian). Moscow.
  43. ^ Taishan 2004, p. 45
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  45. ^ Book of Wei, ch. 102
  46. ^ Liaoshi, vol. 4 "庚子，吐谷渾、烏孫、靺鞨皆來貢。"
  47. ^ 《焦氏易林 – Jiaoshi Yilin》 Original text:烏孫氏女，深目黑醜；嗜欲不同，過時無偶。
  48. ^ Wang Mingzhe; Wang Binghua (1983). Research on Wusun (乌孙研究). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Press. p. 43.
  49. ^ a b c d Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 369–375
  50. ^ a b Book of Han, with commentary by Yan Shigu Original text:　烏孫於西域諸戎其形最異。今之胡人青眼、赤須，狀類彌猴者，本其種也。
  51. ^ So 2009, p. 134
  52. ^ Mallory & Mair 2000, pp. 93–94
  53. ^ Yu, Taishan (July 1998). "A Study of Saka History" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers (80). The four tribes of the Asii and others, including the Da Yuezhi and the Wusun, were all Europoid and spoke Indo-European languages.
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  55. ^ Mair 2013
  56. ^ Baumer 2012, p. 212
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  58. ^ Kusmina 2007, pp. 78, 83
  59. ^ Harmatta 1994, pp. 488–489
  60. ^ Kitagawa 2013, p. 228
  61. ^ Durand-Guédy 2013, pp. 24–25
  62. ^ Golden 2011, p. 29
  63. ^ a b Golden 2010
  64. ^ Sinor 1997, p. 236
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  66. ^ a b Damgaard et al. 2018.
  67. ^ Pulleyblank 1963b, p. 227.
  68. ^ Pulleyblank 1966, pp. 9–39.
  69. ^ Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, pp. 87–88
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  74. East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania
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  78. ^ Golden 1992, pp. 121–122
  79. ^ a b Findley 2005, p. 39 "The term fu-li [附離], used to identify the ruler's retinue as 'wolves,' probably also derived from one of the Iranian languages."
  80. ^ a b Findley 2005, p. 45 "Many elements of non-Turkic origin also became part of Türk statecraft. Important terms, for example, often came from non-Turkic languages, as in the cases of khatun for the ruler's wife and beg for 'aristocrat', both terms of Sogdian origin and ever since in common use in Turkish."
  81. ^ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/beg-pers Beg at Encyclopædia Iranica
  82. ^ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baga-an-old-iranian-term-for-god-sometimes-designating-a-specific-god Baga at Encyclopædia Iranica
  83. ^ Hanshu 《漢書·卷九十六下》 西域傳 Original text: 昆莫年老，言語不通，公主悲愁，自為作歌曰：「吾家嫁我兮天一方，遠托異國兮烏孫王。穹廬為室兮旃為牆，以肉為食兮酪為漿。居常土思兮心內傷，願為黃鵠兮歸故鄉。」
  84. ^ Hanshu, Original text: 民剛惡，貪狼無信，多寇盜，最為強國。
  85. ^ Yong & Bingua 1994, p. 225.
  86. ^ Gardiner-Garden 1986.
  87. JSTOR 3248792
    .
  88. ISBN 2-87772-337-2
    .
  89. PMID 34707286
    .
  90. ^ Tynyshpaev, M (1925). Materials on the history of Kyrgyz-kazakh people. Tashkent: Eastern branch of the Kyrgyz State. Tashkent: Kyrgyz State Publishing. p. 77.
  91. ^ Zhabagin et al. 2020.
  92. ^ Al-Din, Rashid (1952). Collection of histories. Volume 1, Book 1. Moscow-Leningrad: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. p. 151.

Sources

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