History of Lithuania (1219–1295)

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The history of Lithuania between 1219 and 1295 concerns the establishment and early history of the first Lithuanian state, the

Polatsk, Minsk, and other territories east of modern-day Lithuania that had become weak and vulnerable after the collapse of Kievan Rus'
.

The first ruler to hold the title of

pagan empire, fighting against the Teutonic and Livonian Orders during the Northern Crusades during their attempts to Christianize the land.[4]

After Mindaugas' death, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania entered times of relative instability, as reflected by the fact that

seven Grand Dukes held the title over the course of the next 32 years. Little is known about this period, but the Gediminid dynasty was founded in about 1280. Despite the instability, the Grand Duchy did not disintegrate. Vytenis assumed power in 1295, and during the next 20 years laid solid foundations for the Duchy to expand and grow under the leadership of Gediminas and his son Algirdas
. While the Grand Duchy was established between 1219 and 1295, the years after 1295 marked its expansion.

Establishment of the state

Baltic unification

Map of Baltic tribes ca. 13th century. The Eastern Balts are shown in brown hues, the Western Balts in green.

The Balts were largely driven to unite by external threats from aggressive German religious orders.

Teutonic Knights.[6]

In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to defend his borders and subdue the Prussians, offering the Knights the use of Chełmno (Kulm) as a base for their campaign. In 1230, they settled in Chełmno, built a castle, and began attacking Prussian lands. After 44 years, and despite two Prussian uprisings against them, they had conquered most of the Prussian tribes. Afterwards, the Knights spent nine years conquering the Nadruvians, Skalvians, and Yotvingians, and from 1283, they were better positioned to threaten the young Lithuanian state from the west.[7]

Further unification of the Lithuanian tribes was facilitated by the social changes that took place in Lithuania during this period. Private land ownership was established (

Mongol invasion. Temporary alliances among Lithuanian dukes often sufficed for military ventures into, and plundering of, these lands (including Pskov, plundered in 1213). Altogether, between 1201 and 1236, Lithuanians launched at least 22 incursions into Livonia, 14 into Rus, and 4 into Poland. The ongoing administration of conquered territories, however, required a strong and unified central power.[5]

Galicia–Volhynia Treaty

Map of territories controlled by the Livonian Order in 1260. The Order, established in 1202, posed a great danger to the Balts, which encouraged unification.

Some evidence suggests that Lithuanians began combining their forces at the dawn of the 13th century. For example, in 1207, soldiers were recruited across Lithuania to fight the German religious orders, and in 1212, Daugirutis' treaty with Novgorod shows that he exerted some degree of influence over a vast area.[10] During the first twenty years of the 13th century, Lithuanians organized some thirty military expeditions to Livonia, Rus', and Poland.[5] Historian Tomas Baranauskas argues that a Lithuanian state could be said to exist as early as 1183.[3]

However, the first conclusive evidence that the Balts were uniting is considered to be the treaty with

Galicia–Volhynia signed in 1219.[1] The treaty's signatories include 21 Lithuanian dukes; it specifies that five of those were elder and thus took precedence over the remaining sixteen. Presumably, the eldest Duke was Živinbudas, since his name was mentioned first.[3] Mindaugas, despite his youth, and his brother Dausprungas, are listed among the elder dukes. That would imply that they inherited their titles.[10]

The treaty is important for several reasons. It shows that the Lithuanian Dukes were co-operating; the signatories include Dukes who ruled lands such as Samogitia, which probably had no contact with Galicia–Volhynia. Their participation implies a perception of common interest, an indication of a nascent state. However, the designation of five Dukes as "elder" shows that the process of unification was still in transition. The inclusion of 21 Dukes indicates that the various lands in Lithuania were powerful and semi-independent. Historians consider the treaty an interesting documentation of the long and complex process of a state's formation.[10] The progress of unification was uneven; for example, after the deaths of Dukes Daugirutis in 1213 and Stekšys in 1214, fewer raids were organized by Lithuanians.[5]

Rise of Mindaugas

Neman and Neris Rivers,[8] eventually became the founder of the state. Mindaugas is referred to as the ruler of all Lithuania in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle in 1236.[11] The means by which he managed to acquire this title are not well known. Rus' chronicles mention that he murdered or expelled various other dukes, including his relatives.[1]

Vykintas, the victorious leader in the Battle of Saule, as depicted in the Chronicles of Alexander Guagnini, published in 1578

In 1236, Duke

Edivydas, the sons of Dausprungas and Vykintas, to conquer Smolensk, but they were unsuccessful. In 1249, an internal war erupted as Mindaugas sought to seize his nephews' and Vykintas' lands.[11]

Tautvilas, Edivydas, and Vykintas formed a powerful coalition with the Samogitians, the Livonian Order, Daniel of Galicia (Tautvilas and Edivydas' brother-in-law), and Vasilko of Volhynia in opposition to Mindaugas. Only Poles, invited by Daniel, declined to take part in the coalition against the Lithuanians. The dukes of Galicia and Volhynia managed to gain control over Black Ruthenia, an area ruled by Mindaugas' son Vaišvilkas. Tautvilas traveled to Riga, where he was baptized by the Archbishop. In 1250, the Order organized two major raids, one against Nalša land and the other against the domains of Mindaugas and those parts of Samogitia that still supported him.[8]

Attacked from the north and south and facing the possibility of unrest elsewhere, Mindaugas was placed in an extremely difficult position, but managed to use the conflicts between the Livonian Order and the

Polatsk as a fiefdom.[14]

Kingdom of Lithuania

The only surviving Seal of Mindaugas from 1255

As promised, Mindaugas and his wife

Morta were crowned at some time during the summer of 1253, and the Kingdom of Lithuania, proclaimed by the pope in 1251, was soundly established. 6 July is now celebrated as "Statehood Day" (Lithuanian: Valstybės diena); it is an official holiday in modern Lithuania.[15] However, the exact date of the coronation is not known; the scholarship of historian Edvardas Gudavičius, who promulgated this date, is sometimes challenged.[3] The location of the coronation remains unknown.[a]

Pope Innocent IV supported Mindaugas, hoping that a new Christian state could stem the inroads being made by the Golden Horde, a state of the Mongol Empire.[11] On 17 July 1251, the pope signed two crucial papal bulls. One of them ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania, appoint a bishop for Lithuania, and to build a cathedral. The other bull specified that the new bishop was to be directly subordinate to the pope.[8] This was a welcome development to the Lithuanians, since they were concerned that their long-standing antagonists, the Livonian Order, would exert too much control over the new state.[1]

It took some time before a Bishop of Lithuania was appointed because of various conflicts of interest. The Bishop of

Vito (Lithuanian: Vitas), a monk of the Dominican Order, to this position, but he was not recognized by Mindaugas or accepted by the populace. The activities of Vito in Lithuania are unknown, although he is sometimes associated with Mindaugas' Cathedral.[5] Finally, in 1254, Christian (Lithuanian: Kristijonas) from the Livonian Order was appointed. Mindaugas endowed him with some lands in Samogitia, but not much is known about his activities. Historical sources do not mention any sponsorship of missionaries, education of priests, or construction of churches during that time, and Bishop Christian went back to Germany in 1259, where he died in 1271.[5] The establishment of Mindaugas' Cathedral remains problematic, but recent archeological research found the remains of a 13th-century brick building on the site of the present-day Vilnius Cathedral.[8] The general assumption is that the remains are those of Mindaugas Cathedral, built to satisfy the agreement with the pope. However, as later events showed, Lithuanians resisted Christianization, and Mindaugas' baptism had only a temporary impact on further developments.[5]

Immediately after his coronation, Mindaugas transferred some western lands to the Livonian Order – portions of

noble court, administrative systems, a diplomatic service, and a monetary system. Silver Lithuanian long currency (Lithuanian: Lietuvos ilgieji) circulated, providing an indice of statehood.[5]

Vitas
, the first bishop of Lithuania. Painting from the 17th century

The Livonian Order used this period to consolidate their control over Samogitian lands. They built three castles along the border: Memelburg (

Great Prussian Uprising lasted for 14 years. Encouraged by Treniota, his nephew, Mindaugas broke peace with the Order. Some chronicles hint that he also returned to his former pagan beliefs, but this is disputable.[1][11] Nevertheless, all the diplomatic achievements made since his coronation were lost.[5]

Mindaugas then formed an alliance with

Morta died, and Mindaugas expressed the wish to marry Daumantas' wife.[8] Daumantas and Treniota responded to this insult by assassinating Mindaugas and two of his sons, Ruklys and Rupeikis, in 1263.[1]

Years after Mindaugas

Years of instability

Walls of Pskov kremlin built in part during the reign of Daumantas, one of the assassins of Mindaugas and patron saint of Pskov[16]

After Mindaugas' death, the state did not disintegrate and Treniota took over the title of Grand Duke. However, his power was fragile; he was challenged by Tautvilas, who had not forgotten his own claims to power. Tautvilas was also assassinated by Treniota. However, just a year later, in 1264, Treniota was killed by Mindaugas' former servants. Mindaugas' son Vaišvilkas and brother-in-law Švarnas from Volhynia took over the control in Lithuania. Daumantas was forced to flee to Pskov, was baptized Timofei, ruled successfully from 1266 to 1299 and even became a saint.[17] In 1265 Vaišvilkas, as a Christian, reconciled with the Livonian Order and, without support from Lithuania, the rebellions among the Balts that had been fueled by Treniota began to subside.[18] In 1267 he returned to a monastic life and transferred the Grand Duchy to Švarnas.[19]

Little is known about Švarnas and his rule, but historians believe he was unable to take control of all Lithuania, and ruled only over its southern portions.[20] He died in 1269 or 1271 in Galicia.[21]

Reign of Traidenis

The circumstances surrounding the advance to power in 1269 of the next ruler,

Jersika Castle in the present-day Preiļi district, and was able to exchange it for the Dünaburg Castle.[18] Dünaburg remained a Lithuanian outpost until 1313. In 1279 the Order attacked Lithuanian lands, reaching as far as Kernavė, but on their way back they suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Aizkraukle. The Order's master, Ernst von Rassburg, died in the battle, and the conquered Semigallians rebelled. The Semigallians were now willing to acknowledge Lithuania's superiority and asked Traidenis for assistance.[22]

Columns of Gediminids, the symbol of a dynasty that started with Butigeidis ca. 1285 and ended with Sigismund II Augustus
in 1572

Traidenis' reign was the longest and most stable regime during the period of unrest. After his death the Orders finalized their conquests: the conquered Baltic tribes did not rebel again and the Orders could now concentrate on Lithuania.

Great Prussian Rebellion ended, and the Teutonic Knights proceeded to conquer other Baltic tribes: the Nadruvians and Skalvians in 1274–1277, and the Yotvingians in 1283; the Livonian Order completed its conquest of Semigalia, the last Baltic ally of Lithuania, in 1291.[5]

Rise of Gediminids

There is considerable uncertainty about the identities of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania between Traidenis' death in 1282 and Vytenis' assumption of power in 1295. This is in part because the two main sources for Lithuanian history in the 13th century, the Hypatian Codex and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, end in the early 1290s. In 1285, one chronicle mentions Daumantas as Grand Duke. He attacked the Bishop of Tver and was severely wounded or even killed in the battle.[23]

The

Masovia, an ally of the knights.[25]

Legacy

Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the 13–15th centuries[image reference needed]

The state united and ruled by Mindaugas constituted the first Lithuanian state. The state effectively protected Lithuanians and Samogitians from assimilation induced by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order, the destiny of

better source needed] By about 1430, at its peak during the reign of Vytautas the Great, the Grand Duchy controlled some 930,000 km2 (360,000 sq mi) and almost 2.5 million people.[27]

The period from 1219 to 1295 also shaped future conflicts: the

King of Poland; the last pagan state in Europe was converted to Christianity.[4]

References

  1. ^
    ISBN 0-87141-028-1
    .
  2. LCCN 74-114275
    .
  3. ^
    ISSN 1392-0677. Archived from the original
    on 26 October 2005. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
  4. ^
    ISBN 0-521-45011-X
    . Retrieved 2 January 2007.
  5. ^
    ISBN 9986-810-13-2
    .
  6. ^ Andrejs Plakans, A Concise History of the Baltic States, 44.
  7. ^
    ISBN 9986-9216-9-4. Archived from the original
    on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  8. ^
    ISSN 0134-3084. Archived from the original
    on 23 May 2007. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
  9. Lithuanian University of Agriculture. p. 17. Archived from the original
    on 22 July 2011.
  10. ^
    ISBN 9986-9216-9-4. Archived from the original
    on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  11. ^
    ISBN 5-420-01535-8
    .
  12. ISBN 9986-9216-9-4. Archived from the original
    on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  13. ^
    ISBN 9986-9216-9-4. Archived from the original
    on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  14. ISBN 5-420-01535-8
    .
  15. ^ (in Lithuanian) Lietuvos Respublikos švenčių dienų įstatymas, Žin., 1990, Nr. 31-757, Seimas. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
  16. ^ Ivinskis, Zenonas (1937). "Daumantai". In Vaclovas Biržiška (ed.). Lietuviškoji enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Vol. VI. Kaunas: Spaudos Fondas. p. 177.
  17. ISSN 1392-2351
    . Retrieved 17 September 2006.
  18. ^
    ISBN 9986-9216-9-4. Archived from the original
    on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  19. ISBN 83-07-01957-5
    .
  20. ISBN 5-420-01535-8
    .
  21. ISBN 978-0-582-48150-3
    .
  22. ISBN 5-420-01535-8
    .
  23. ISBN 5-420-01535-8
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  24. ^
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  25. ISBN 5-420-01535-8
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  26. ^
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  27. ^
    ISBN 5-420-01585-4
    .
  28. ISBN 9955-445-52-1
    .

Notes

  1. ^ See Novogrudok
  1. Gudavičius, Edvardas (1996). "Following the Tracks of a Myth[usurped]". Lithuanian Historical Studies.
  2. Baranauskas, Tomas (2000). "The Formation of the Lithuanian State[usurped]". Lietuvos.net
  3. Baranauskas, Tomas (2006). "Chronology: High Middle Ages (1183–1283)[usurped]". Lietuvos.net
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