Lithuanian–Soviet War
Lithuanian–Soviet War | |||||||
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Part of Lithuanian Wars of Independence and Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919 of Russian Civil War | |||||||
Soviet prisoners of war in a Lithuanian camp. As of December 1, 1919, the Lithuanians held 1,773 Soviet prisoners.[1] | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
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Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Silvestras Žukauskas |
Vincas Kapsukas | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
8,000 Lithuanians (August 1919)[2] | 18,000–20,000 |
The Lithuanian–Soviet War or Lithuanian–Bolshevik War (
British-Polish historian Norman Davies summarized the situation: "the German army was supporting the Lithuanian nationalists, the Soviets were supporting the Lithuanian communists and the Polish Army was fighting them all."[4] In mid-May, the Lithuanian army, now commanded by General Silvestras Žukauskas, began an offensive against the Soviets in Northeastern Lithuania. By mid-June, the Lithuanians reached the Latvian border and cornered the Soviets among lakes and hills near Zarasai, where the Soviets held out until the end of August 1919. The Soviets and Lithuanians, separated by the Daugava River, maintained their fronts until the Battle of Daugavpils in January 1920. As early as September 1919, the Soviets offered to negotiate a peace treaty, but talks began only in May 1920. The Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty was signed on July 12, 1920. Soviet Russia fully recognized independent Lithuania.
Background
Lithuania became part of the
On November 13, 1918, the Soviet Russian government renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which had assured Lithuania's independence.
Opposing sides
Lithuanian government
They lacked guns, ammunition, and officers.At the end of December, with the Bolsheviks already in the country, Lithuania was left leaderless. Augustinas Voldemaras, Antanas Smetona, Chairman of the Council of Lithuania, and Martynas Yčas, minister of finance, departed for Germany to ask for financial assistance.[2] General Kiprijonas Kundratavičius, vice minister of defense, suggested a retreat to Gardinas and refused to command the Lithuanian defense.[10] The first cabinet of ministers resigned on December 26, 1918. Mykolas Sleževičius stepped in and organized a new government. On December 29, he issued the first mass appeal in four languages calling for volunteers for the Lithuanian Army.[12] Sleževičius' government adopted a new policy on land reform, which could be summarized in a slogan "land for those who cultivate it."[13] It meant the land would be taken from large landowners and redistributed first to the volunteers for free and then to small peasants for a fee.[14] Mobilization of officers was announced only on January 25; about 400 people responded.[12]
Saxon volunteers
In Berlin, Smetona and Yčas signed a loan agreement with Germany for 100 million
At first, they were organized into the 46th Saxon Volunteer Division.
Soviet government
On 8 December 1918, a revolutionary government was formed from members of the
In the occupied territory the Soviets created revolutionary committees and soviets based on structures developed in Russia.[25] Unlike elsewhere, Lithuanian communist organizations were young and had not yet developed a network of supporting local councils.[9] They nationalized commercial institutions and large estates. The land was to be used for collective farming instead of being redistributed to small farmers.[26] The Soviet propagated internationalism and atheism in a country of staunch Catholics and determined nationalists.[25][27] Soviets were supported by the industrial working class, but it was too small in Lithuania.[27] The Soviets demanded large war contributions from captured cities and villages. For example, Panevėžys was required to pay 1,000,000, Utena – 200,000, villagers – 10 rubles.[28] Such policies alienated the local population and contributed to the eventual defeat of the Soviets.[27] For example, in February, Kapsukas sent a telegram to Moscow arguing that conscription of local Lithuanians to the Red Army would only encourage Lithuanians to volunteer for the Lithuanian army.[25]
Soviet advance
Soviet military gains
Soviet troops (about 18,000
Red Army captured one town after another: Zarasai and Švenčionys (Dec. 22), Utena (Dec. 23), Rokiškis and Vilnius[33] (Jan. 5), Ukmergė and Panevėžys (Jan. 9), Šiauliai (Jan. 15), Telšiai (Jan. 25).[30] That accounted for about 2⁄3 of the Lithuanian territory. The front somewhat stabilized when Soviet forces were stopped near the Venta River by Latvian and German units (Baltische Landeswehr).[34] Also, Germans slowed down the withdrawal of their troops after the Spartacist uprising was subdued on January 12.[35] Southern Lithuania was a little better protected as Germans retreated from Ukraine through Gardinas. To prevent fights between retreating Germans and the Red Army, the Soviets and Germans signed a treaty on January 18. The treaty drew a temporary demarcation line that went through Daugai, Stakliškės, and 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) east of the Kaišiadorys–Jonava–Kėdainiai railway.[36] That barred Bolshevik forces from directly attacking Kaunas, Lithuania's second-largest city. The Red Army would need to encircle Kaunas and attack through Alytus or Kėdainiai. The operation to take Kaunas began on February 7.
Encirclement of Kaunas
Kėdainiai was attacked by the 2nd Rifle Regiment of the Lithuanian (former Pskov) Division (about 1,000 men). Lithuanian forces from Panevėžys, commanded by Jonas Variakojis, and from Kėdainiai numbered only about 200 men.[36] Lithuanians withstood Red Army advance near Kėdainiai and with German support repelled it. On February 8, during the course of a reconnaissance mission, Povilas Lukšys became the first Lithuanian soldier to die in the war.[37] On February 10, joint Lithuanian and German forces captured Šėta and forced the Red Army to retreat. The operation's success lifted the Lithuanian army's morale and prevented the Red Army from encircling Kaunas from the north.[36]
On February 9, Soviet 7th Rifle Regiment (900 men) seized Jieznas, south of Kaunas.[38] The battle of Jieznas lasted three days, and, after the setback of the betrayal by a Russian officer in Lithuanian service, Lithuanians, together with German support, ultimately won on February 13 and liberated Jieznas.[39] The Soviets continued to push for Kaunas. The 3rd and 4th Rifle Regiments (about 2,000 men) attacked Alytus on February 12. Germans did not engage in battle and retreated; not yet fully formed Lithuanian 1st Infantry Regiment could not withstand pressure from the Red Army and had to retreat towards Marijampolė and Prienai.[40] Antanas Juozapavičius, the first Lithuanian officer to die in the wars, was killed during this battle. On the night of February 14–15, German forces and one company of the Lithuanians returned to Alytus and once more liberated the city.[41] Kaunas was defended and the front stabilized for a while. Soviets were ordered to abandon the offensive and maintain a defensive position.[42] This break allowed Lithuanians to better organize and train the volunteers.
Counterattacks
German offensive
Northern Lithuania (
The movement of the Bolsheviks towards East Prussia worried Germany, and they sent volunteers (Brigade Schaulen) commanded by General Rüdiger von der Goltz to free a section of the Libau–Romny Railway line linking Liepāja, Mažeikiai, Radviliškis, and Kėdainiai.[46] It was part of a larger counter-offensive in Latvia.[47] At the end of February, the Lithuanian partisans, supported by German artillery, liberated Mažeikiai and Seda, and pursued the Bolsheviks to Kuršėnai. On February 27, 1919, German volunteers supported by Plechavičius' partisans and Joniškėlis' partisans, defeated the Samogitian Regiment in a battle near Luokė.[45] The regiment disbanded. Before mid-March, the Germans took Kuršėnai, Šiauliai, Radviliškis, Šeduva, Joniškis and stopped.[48] On few occasions, they were aided by Lithuanian partisans and regular units. Joniškėlis' partisans continued to guard the front along the Mūša River.[49] They were later incorporated into regular Lithuanian military.[50]
Lithuanian preparations
As the Soviet forces were stopped, the Lithuanian army slowly began preparing itself for an offensive. After the Battle of Kėdainiai, the Panevėžys volunteer regiment had secured its positions and grew in strength.[51] Between mid-February and end of March, it carried out small expeditions into nearby towns. Their main purpose was to demoralize the enemy forces and boost the confidence of locals and Lithuanian volunteers.[52] As a reward for its successful operations, the volunteer regiment was named the Separate Panevėžys Battalion (Lithuanian: Panevėžio atskirasis batalionas) on March 22.[53] Demoralization campaign was successful: the Bolshevik forces stationed in Panevėžys and Kupiškis rebelled and were quelled only by a Red Army division from neighbouring Latvia.[54] The Bolshevik morale underwent deeper declines and, between March 19 and March 24, their forces left Panevėžys. Lithuanian forces entered the city on March 26, but the Red Army retook it on April 4.[55]
The lull between Soviet attacks was used to strengthen and organize the army. On March 5, Lithuanians announced the mobilization of men born in 1887–1889.[2] Lithuanian forces rapidly increased their numbers. By May 3, the official headcount reached 440 officers and 10,729 privates.[56] However, only about half of them were properly trained, armed, and assigned to military units.[56] In February–April, Lithuanian soldiers were actively undergoing training, the chain of command was streamlined, new military units formed. Lithuania also received new shipments of arms and munitions. Soldiers received first uniforms.[57]
The first organized Lithuanian offensive was carried out on April 3–8, 1919. Lithuanians decided to take advantage of large Polish attacks against the Soviets in the area near Gardinas to test enemy strength and liberate Vilnius.
Polish offensive
Poland started an offensive against the Soviets in March 1919. They pushed east and north, entering
Poland did not recognize Lithuania as its Chief of State
Lithuanian offensive
Polish advances against the Soviets necessitated changes in Lithuanian strategy. On April 26, General Silvestras Žukauskas, who just recovered from typhus, was designated Chief of the General Staff.[19] He decided to mount an offensive in northeastern Lithuania. The first objective was to take over Ukmergė. On May 3, the Separate Panevėžys Volunteer Regiment, supported by the 18th Regiment of Saxon Volunteers, had secured the town. The operation was risky as for a while Kėdainiai was unprotected opening a path to Kaunas,[32] but also very successful: some 500 Soviet soldiers were taken prisoner and about 50 Poles, captured by the Soviets in the battles near Vilnius, were liberated and returned to Poland.[63] On May 7, Lithuanians entered Širvintos, where they found Polish troops. Lithuanians and Poles mounted a joint operation to take Giedraičiai on May 9.[32]
The Lithuanian army's chain of command was reformed. On May 7, General Žukauskas assumed command of the entire Lithuanian army and initiated a complete reorganization of the Lithuanian forces into two groups.[64] The first brigade, stationed in Ukmergė, was called the Vilkmergė Group and included a battalion of Saxon Volunteers. Its first commander Kazys Ladiga was ordered to push along the Utena–Zarasai line.[32] The second brigade, called the Panevėžys Group, was charged with capturing Panevėžys and then pushing along the Kupiškis–Rokiškis–Obeliai line.[32] The group, initially commanded by Jonas Variakojis, was aided by Joniškėlis' partisans from the north. The Ministry of Defense and the General Staff were also reorganized.[64]
On May 18, the reorganized army carried out its first operation. The Vilkmergė Group captured Kurkliai and Anykščiai.[65] On May 22, the Group launched an attack on Utena. The initiative was met by a Soviet counterattack and the Lithuanian forces retreated. Further attacks were stopped for several days to wait for the results of the advance on Kupiškis.[66] The drive towards Utena resumed on May 31, and the city was secured on June 2. The Panevėžys Group launched a drive towards Panevėžys on May 18 and secured the city the following day, but lost it to a Bolshevik counterattack, carried out on May 21.[32] However, the Soviets left Panevėžys without a fight two days later.[67] The Group charged towards Kupiškis and secured Subačius. On May 30, Joniškėlis' partisans broke through the Soviet lines and liberated Rokiškis in Soviet rear;[68] Bolshevik forces, afraid that they could be encircled, left Kupiškis on the night of May 30–31, and Lithuania secured that city on June 1.[69]
After Utena's liberation, Saxon Volunteers left the front and by mid-July departed Lithuania.[32] However, Lithuanian advance continued and, on June 10, Lithuanian forces reached the territory controlled by Latvian partisans (Green Guard) and supplied them with munitions.[70] On June 12, the Soviets counterattacked and Lithuanians were stopped. Another Soviet push came on June 20 and the front stabilized.[71] The Soviets were cornered in a small region around Zarasai. Between July 6 and 12, Lithuanians with some Latvian assistance attempted to drive out the Bolsheviks. The Soviets gathered their forces from calmer fronts and forced Lithuanians to retreat to their former positions.[68]
Polish–Lithuanian conflict
While Lithuanian forces battled the Soviets in northeastern Lithuania, the tension between Poland and Lithuania grew. Direct negotiations between May 28 and June 11, 1919, collapsed as neither side was inclined to compromise.
Final battles
Due to the threat from Poland, the front with the Soviets was quiet for more than a month. There were minor incidents involving scouts or outpost guards.[81] The Red Army used the time to reorganize and strengthen their forces, using natural barriers, like plentiful lakes, rivers, and hills, enhanced with trenches and barbed wires, to secure their position.[82] They also had field fortifications from World War I about 10 km (6.2 mi) south of Daugavpils.[68] The Soviets had larger forces: Lithuanians had two infantry regiments and five separate battalions; the Soviets had six regiments and one separate battalion.[68] Together, the Lithuanians and the Poles planned to advance to Daugavpils starting August 9, but the plans were delayed until August 23.[83]
The Ukmergė Group attacked first and liberated Zarasai on August 25. The Group moved about 30 km (19 mi) into the Soviet-controlled territory, but neither the right nor left flanks were adequately protected by the Polish units or the Panevėžys Group.
The Bolshevik enemy was driven out from the Lithuanian territory and the narrow front stabilized as Lithuanians and Soviets were separated by the Daugava River. The Lithuanian main forces could be redeployed elsewhere, including protection of the demarcation line with Poland and the planned attacks against the
Peace treaty
The first Lithuanian–Soviet attempt at negotiations took place on 11 September 1919, after the
On 14 July 1920, the Soviets occupied Vilnius but did not transfer the city to the Lithuanian administration as agreed in the peace treaty. Instead, the Soviets planned a coup to overthrow the Lithuanian government and establish a Soviet republic.[92] However, the Soviets lost the Battle of Warsaw and were pushed back by the Poles. Some historians credit this victory for saving Lithuania's independence from the Soviet coup.[80][93] On August 26, the Red Army left Vilnius and Lithuanians prepared to defend their borders. As Poland did not recognize the treaty, this led to further hostilities. Eventually, Lithuania lost the Vilnius Region to Poland during the Żeligowski's Mutiny. When mediation by the League of Nations failed to change the situation, Lithuania and Poland were suspended in the state of "no war, no peace" until the Polish ultimatum of 1938.[94] During all this time, Soviet Russia became Lithuania's strongest ally against Poland.[95]
See also
References
- ^ a b Lesčius 2004, p. 173
- ^ a b c d e Skirius 2002b
- ^ Davies 1998, p. 934
- ^ Davies 1982, p. 506
- ^ a b Langstrom 2003, p. 52
- ^ Eidintas, Žalys & Senn 1999, p. 30
- ^ Čepėnas 1986, p. 315
- ^ Čepėnas 1986, p. 316
- ^ a b Rauch 1970, p. 51
- ^ a b c d Kamuntavičius et al. 2001, p. 352
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 22
- ^ a b Blaževičius 2004
- ^ a b Truska 1995, p. 52
- ^ Truska 1995, pp. 52–53
- ^ Lane 2001, pp. 6–7
- ^ Čepėnas 1986, p. 317
- ^ White 1994, pp. 1359–1360
- ^ a b c d e f Lesčius 2004, p. 40
- ^ a b c Raštikis 1973, pp. 88–91
- ^ Rauch 1970, pp. 62–63
- ^ Kamuntavičius et al. 2001, p. 354
- ^ White 1994, pp. 1361–1362
- ^ Snyder 2004, pp. 61–62
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 32
- ^ a b c d Eidintas, Žalys & Senn 1999, p. 36
- ^ a b c Lane 2001, p. 7
- ^ a b c Lane 2001, p. 8
- ^ a b Lesčius 2004, p. 34
- ^ Kamuntavičius et al. 2001, p. 353
- ^ a b c Ališauskas 1953–1966, p. 94
- ^ a b Čepėnas 1986, p. 319
- ^ a b c d e f g Čekutis & Žygelis 2007
- ISBN 9788311119345.
- ^ Ališauskas 1953–1966, pp. 94–95
- ^ White 1994, p. 1365
- ^ a b c d Ališauskas 1953–1966, p. 95
- ^ "Minima pirmoji Lietuvos nepriklausomybės kovų pergalė" (in Lithuanian). Ministry of National Defence. 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 47
- ^ Lesčius 2004, pp. 49–50
- ^ Lesčius 2004, pp. 54–57
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 60
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 79
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 70
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 33
- ^ a b Lesčius 2004, p. 36
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 71
- ^ Rauch 1970, pp. 59–60
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 72
- ^ a b Ališauskas 1953–1966, p. 96
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 78
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 62
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 63
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 64
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 66
- ^ Lesčius 2004, pp. 66, 69
- ^ a b Lesčius 2004, p. 91
- ^ a b c d Lesčius 2004, pp. 80–81
- ^ a b Snyder 2004, p. 62
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 90
- ^ a b Łossowski 1966, p. 47
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 252
- ^ a b Eidintas, Žalys & Senn 1999, pp. 71–72
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 94
- ^ a b Lesčius 2004, pp. 97–98
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 106
- ^ Ališauskas 1953–1966, p. 97
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 117
- ^ a b c d e Ališauskas 1953–1966, p. 98
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 132
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 133
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 136
- ^ Lesčius 2004, pp. 251–252
- ^ Łossowski 1966, pp. 49–50
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 254
- ^ Lesčius 2004, pp. 254, 257
- ^ Łossowski 1966, p. 51
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 258
- ^ a b Łossowski 1966, pp. 56–57
- ^ Łossowski 1966, p. 66
- ^ a b c Snyder 2004, p. 63
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 150
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 152
- ^ Lesčius 2004, pp. 151–152
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 160
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 164
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 169
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 167
- ^ Ališauskas 1953–1966, p. 99
- ^ Lesčius 2004, p. 174
- ^ a b Jēkabsons 2006, pp. 41–64
- ^ a b Skirius 2002a
- ^ a b Eidintas, Žalys & Senn 1999, p. 70
- ^ Senn 1962, pp. 505–506
- ^ MacQueen 1998, pp. 27–48
- ^ Eidintas, Žalys & Senn 1999, pp. 109, 156
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