History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire
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By the time the
At the time of
The
Overview
At the time of the
In addition to the already existing Jewish population in the lands the Ottomans conquered, many more Jews were given refuge after the
Some Jews who reached high positions in the Ottoman court and administration include
, who was the master of the mint in Egypt.Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600)
The first Jewish synagogue linked to Ottoman rule is Etz ha-Hayyim (Hebrew: עץ החיים Lit. Tree of Life) in Bursa which passed to Ottoman authority in 1324. The synagogue is still in use, although the modern Jewish population of Bursa has shrunk to about 140 people.[9]
During the Classical Ottoman period, the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well as diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews rose to prominence under the millets, the apogee of Jewish influence could arguable be the appointment of
An additional problem was the
Resettlement of the Romaniotes
The first major event in
Influx of Sephardic Jews from Iberia
The number of
An influx of Jews into
The Jews satisfied various needs in the Ottoman Empire. The
Although the Ottomans did not treat Jews differently from other minorities in the country, the policies seemed to align well with Jewish traditions, which allowed communities to flourish. The Jewish people were allowed to establish their own autonomous communities, which included their own schools and courts. Those rights were extremely controversial in other regions in Muslim North Africa and absolutely unrealistic in Europe. The communities would prove to be centers of education and trade because of the large array of connections to other Jewish communities across the Mediterranean.[25]
Banking and finance
In the sixteenth century, the leading financiers in Istanbul were Greeks and Jews. Many of the Jewish financiers were originally from Iberia and had fled during the period leading up to the expulsion of Jews from Spain. Many of these families brought great fortunes with them.[26] The most notable of the Jewish banking families in the 16th-century Ottoman Empire was the Marrano banking house of Mendès, which moved to and settled in Istanbul in 1552 under the protection of sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. When Alvaro Mendès arrived in Istanbul in 1588, he is reported to have brought with him 85,000 gold ducats.[27] The Mendès family soon acquired a dominating position in the state finances of the Ottoman Empire and in commerce with Europe.[28]
Taxation
Ottoman Jews were obliged to pay special taxes to the Ottoman authorities. These taxes included the
Textiles
The Jews of Salonica were well known for the spinning wool for the manufacture of broadcloth. However, the city was also served by large port, making it easily susceptible to infectious agents from abroad. Incidents of plague often affected the production of broadcloth as residents of Salonica repeatedly became ill, died or fled during outbreaks.[29]
17th century
Friction between Jews and Turks was less common than in the Arab territories. Some examples: In 1660 or 1662, under
18th and 19th centuries
The history of
Ottoman Jews held a variety of views on the role of Jews in the
Some Jews thrived in Baghdad, performing critical commercial functions such as moneylending and banking.[34]
Prior to the creation of the Yemen Vilayet in 1872, the Zaydi Imam of Yemen had implemented more restrictions on Jews than had been present in the Ottoman Empire, such as the Orphans' Decree, which required orphans of Jewish parents to be raised as Muslims. Once Ottoman rule began, the Orphan's Decree was revoked, although a "Dung-Gatherers' Decree," which tasked Jews with cleaning sewers, remained in effect. Also, the Ottoman authorities raised the jizya tax burden on Jews and often did not respect Jewish holidays. Starting around 1881, many Yemeni Jews began to move to Jerusalem.[35]
The Jewish millet agreed upon a constitution which was enacted in 1865, Konstitusyon para la nasyon yisraelita de la Turkia,[36] originally written in Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino). Writer M. Franco stated that Ottoman government employee and translator Yehezkel Gabay (1825-96) wrote the Ottoman Turkish version of this constitution.[37]
In 1881, in response to rising antisemitism in mainland Europe, as well as a number of proposals made by various parties regarding the potential settlement of Jews within the empire, the Council of Ministers declared that "[Jewish] immigrants [would] be able to settle as scattered groups throughout Turkey, excluding Palestine."[38]
Antisemitism
Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries.[39] According to Mark Cohen in The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, most scholars conclude that Arab anti-Semitism in the modern world arose in the nineteenth century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized").[40]
There was a massacre of Jews in
In 1865, when the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed, Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, a high-ranking official observed, "whereas in former times, in the Ottoman State, the communities were ranked, with the Muslims first, then the Greeks, then the Armenians, then the Jews, now all of them were put on the same level. Some Greeks objected to this, saying: 'The government has put us together with the Jews. We were content with the supremacy of Islam.'"[42]
Throughout the 1860s, the
An important instance of anti-Semitism around this time was the Damascus affair, in which many Jews in Damascus (which was then under the leadership of Muhammad Ali of Egypt) were arrested after being accused of murdering the Christian Father Thomas and his servant in an instance of blood libel. While the authorities under Sharif Pasha, Egyptian governor of Damascus, tortured the accused until they confessed to the crime, and killed two Jews who refused to confess, prominent European Jews such as Adolphe Crémieux demanded the release of the condemned.[43]
Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler:
I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mohammedan.[44]
The overwhelming majority of the Ottoman Jews lived in the
Jewish life
In the Ottoman Empire, Jews and Christians were considered dhimmi by the majority Muslim population. Muslims in the Ottoman Empire used the Qur'anic concept of dhimmi to place certain restrictions on Jews living in the region. For example, some of the restrictions placed on Jews in the Ottoman Empire were included, but not limited to, a special tax, a requirement to wear special clothing, and a ban on carrying guns, riding horses, building or repairing places of worship, and having public processions or worships.[23]
Even though Jews were placed under special restrictions in the Ottoman Empire, there was still a vibrant Jewish culture in certain regions of the Empire. This was especially true for the Sephardic Jews, who had large amounts of political and cultural influence in the Ottoman Empire.[23] The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire had political and cultural influence because they "were perceived as Westerners who had extensive contacts with Europe, who knew European languages, and brought new knowledge and technologies".[23] Additionally, some Sephardic Jews "were...prominent merchants with European markets" who were even regarded as "potential allies, diplomats, and spies" during times of war against Christians.[23] Throughout the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire saw an increased Jewish influence on the economy and commerce. There is no doubt among historians that "Spanish Jews contributed significantly to the development of the capital in the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century".[45]
Although many Sephardic Jews had large amounts of political and cultural capital, the Jewish community in the Ottoman Empire was decentralized for most of the region's history.[23] This changed, however, when the Sultan appointed a Hakham-bashi or a chief rabbi to exercise jurisdiction in the community regarding issues of "marriage, divorce, engagement, and inheritance"[45] in addition to delivering "his community's share of the taxes and keeping order"[45] in the community.
Life in Salonica
Although Jews were spread throughout the Ottoman Empire, the cities of
Salonica became the Jewish center of the Ottoman Empire after 1492. At this time, the Spanish Inquisition began in Spain and Portugal and Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or emigrate. Religious persecution caused many Sephardic Jews to immigrate to Salonica and make up a majority of the city's population. In Salonica, Jews lived in communities around Synagogues in which, "Jewish organizations provided all the religious, legal, educational and social services".[16] The concentration of Jews in the city as well as the binding social capital[46] provided by Jewish organizations allowed Salonica to become an "almost autonomous" zone for Jews to flourish in.[16]
The strength of the Jewish community in Salonica can even be seen after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. After the Ottoman Empire fell, the city of Salonica was not depicted as a Greek or Turkish city, but instead was considered a Jewish city.[22]
Additionally, some historians claim Salonica was seen as the "New Jerusalem" and has been named the "Mother of Israel"[47] where the Jewish Sabbath "was most vigorously observed".[22] Also, there were many international organizations that thought about creating a new Jewish state instead of Palestine before the state of Israel was created.[22]
Sephardic Jews did not envision Palestine as the seat of Jewish governance and autonomy in the immediate aftermath of World War I.
Media
During the Ottoman Empire, the following newspapers served Jewish communities:[49]
- Ottoman Turkish with Hebrew characters:
- Ceridei Tercüme ("Translation Journal"), began in 1876 and edited by Jozef Niego, published in Istanbul
- Şarkiye ("The East"), began in 1867, edited by an anonymous person, published in Istanbul
- Zaman ("Time"), began in 1872, edited by an anonymous person, published in Istanbul
- Ottoman Turkish and Ladino (Judeo-Spanish):
- Ceride-i Lisan ("Language Journal"), began in 1899, edited by Avram Leyon
- El Tiempo, a Ladino language newspaper published by David Fresco in Constantinople/Istanbul in the years 1872–1930
- French:
- L'Aurore, published beginning in 1908, by Thessaloniki (Salonika) man Lucien Sciuto; later moved to Cairo
- Le Jeune Turc ("The Young Turk")
- Albert Carasso(Karasu)
- La Nasion ("The Nation"), October 1919 to 17 September 1922, edited by Jak Loria
- Hebrew:
- Hamevasser, 1909–1911, published by Nahum Solokoff
See also
- History of the Jews in Thessaloniki
- History of the Jews in Turkey
- Antisemitism in Turkey
- Racism and discrimination in Turkey
- History of the Jews in Istanbul
- Romaniotes
- Urfalim
- Hamevasser
- Jews in Palestine under Ottoman rule
- History of the Jews under Muslim rule
References
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- ^ B. Lewis, The Jews of Islam, PUP, (1987) 137–141
- ^ L. Stavrianos; The Balkans since 1453, NYU Press (2000)
- ^ H. Inalcik; The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600, Phoenix Press, (2001)
- ^ "EARLY MODERN JEWISH HISTORY: Overview » 5. Ottoman Empire". jewishhistory.research.wesleyan.edu. Retrieved 2018-11-24.
- ^ Akbar, M. J. (2003), The shade of swords: jihad and the conflict between Islam and Christianity, p. 89
- ^ "International Jewish Cemetery Project – Turkey". Archived from the original on 2011-06-07. Retrieved 2011-05-24.
- ^ Charles Issawi & Dmitri Gondicas; Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism, Princeton, (1999)
- ^ a b Studies in Ottoman Social & Economic Life, Heidelberg, (1999); the essay is entitled:Muslims & Zimmis in the Ottoman cultur and society by Haim Gerber, Jerusalem, (1999)
- ^ The Black Death, Channel 4 –History.
- ^ a b Inalcik, Halil. “The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229–249.pg236
- ^ a b Avigdor Levy; The Jews of the Ottoman Empire, New Jersey, (1994)
- ^ J. Hacker, Ottoman policies towards the Jews and Jewish attitudes towards Ottomans during the Fifteenth Century in "Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire", New York (1982)
- ^ a b c d "The Sephardic Exodus to the Ottoman Empire". My Jewish Learning. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
- ^ B. Lewis, "The Jews of Islam", New York (1984), pp. 135 –136
- ^ "Letter of Rabbi Isaac Zarfati". Turkishjews.com. Retrieved 2012-10-16.
- ^ a b c "Jewish Community in Ottoman Empire". DailySabah. Retrieved 2018-04-16.
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- ^ a b "Sephardi Jews in Salonica". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
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- ^ a b c d e f "EARLY MODERN JEWISH HISTORY: Overview » 5. Ottoman Empire". jewishhistory.research.wesleyan.edu. Archived from the original on 2018-12-14. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
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- ^ Sidney Mendelssohn.The Jews of Asia: especially in the sixteenth and seventeenth century. (1920) p.241. "Long before the culmination of Sabbathai's mad career, Safed had been destroyed by the Arabs and the Jews had suffered severely, while in the same year (1660) there was a great fire in Constantinople in which they endured heavy losses..."
- ^ Isidore Singer; Cyrus Adler (1912). The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Funk and Wagnalls. p. 283.
- ^ Franco, Moïse (1897). Essai sur l'histoire des Israélites de l'Empire ottoman: depuis les origines jusqu'à nos jours. Librairie A. Durlacher. p. 88. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
Moins de douze ans après, en 1660, sous Mohammed IV, la ville de Safed, si importante autrefois dans les annales juives parce qu'elle était habitée exclusivement par les Israélites, fut détruite par les Arabes, au point qu'il n' y resta, dit une chroniquer une seule ame juive.
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Under Ottoman rule, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Jews continued to thrive, becoming part of the commercial and political ruling class. Like Armenians, the Jews could engage in necessary commercial activities, such as moneylending and banking, that were proscribed for Moslems under Islamic law.
- )
- Martin Luther University) // CITED: p. 37 (PDF p. 39/338).
- Martin Luther University) // CITED: p. 24 (PDF p. 26/338).
- ^ Mandel, Neville J. (October 1974). "Ottoman Policy and Restrictions on Jewish Settlement in Palestine: 1881-1908: Part I" (PDF). Middle Eastern Studies. 10 (3). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 312–332. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
- ^ a b Gilbert, Martin. Letters to Auntie Fori: The 5,000-Year History of the Jewish People and Their Faith, HarperCollins, 2002, pp 179–82.
- ^ Mark Cohen(2002), p.208
- ^ a b Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001. Vintage Books, 2001, pp 10–11.
- ^ Lewis (1999), pp. 136–137; Gerber (1986), p. 86
- ^ Sharkey (2017), pp. 155-158.
- ^ Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001. Vintage Books, 2001
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- ^ Azagury, Yaelle (12 August 2020). "The story of Jewish Salonica". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
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External links
- Jews, Turks, Ottomans: A Shared History, Fifteenth Through the Twentieth Century
- In particular on the history of Istanbul Jewry in the Ottoman Empire, see M. Rosen, Studies in the History of Istanbul Jewry, 1453-1923 (Diaspora, 2), Turnhout, 2015