Kirkuk

Coordinates: 35°28′0″N 44°19′0″E / 35.46667°N 44.31667°E / 35.46667; 44.31667
Extended-protected article
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Kirkuk (disambiguation).

Kirkuk
City
View of the Kirkuk citadel from outside
View of the Kirkuk citadel from outside
Kirkuk is located in Iraq
Kirkuk
Kirkuk
Location within Iraq
Coordinates: 35°28′0″N 44°19′0″E / 35.46667°N 44.31667°E / 35.46667; 44.31667
Country Iraq[1]
GovernorateKirkuk
DistrictKirkuk
Elevation
350 m (1,150 ft)
Population
 (2023 Est.)
 • Total1,075,000[2]
Time zoneGMT +3

Kirkuk (

romanized: Kerkouk;[5] Turkish: Kerkük[6]) is a city in Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate, located 238 kilometres (148 miles) north of Baghdad.[7] The city is home to a diverse population of Kurds, Iraqi Turkmens and Arabs.[8] Kirkuk sits on the ruins of the original Kirkuk Citadel which sits near the Khasa River
.

Kirkuk was proclaimed the "capital of Iraqi culture" in 2010.[citation needed] It is described by the Kurdish leader and former Iraqi president Jalal Talabani as “the Jerusalem of Kurdistan”, while it is seen by the Turkmen activist Fatih Salah as the cultural and historical capital of Iraqi Turkmens.[9] The government of Iraq states that Kirkuk represents a small version of Iraq due to its diverse population, and that the city is a model for coexistence in the country.[10][11]

Etymology

The ancient name of Kirkuk was the

Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent in that era.[17]

The region around Kirkuk was known historically in the

Parthian empire
(150 BC–226 AD).

It is also thought that region was known during the

Sassanid periods as Garmakan, which means the 'Land of Warmth' or the 'Hot Land'. In Persian "Garm" means warm;[20]

After the 7th century, Muslim writers used the name Kirkheni (Syriac for "citadel"[21]) to refer to the city.[22] Others used other variant, such as Bajermi (a corruption of Aramaic "B'th Garmayeh" or Jermakan (a corruption of Persian Garmakan) .[20]

History

Ancient history

It is suggested that Kirkuk was one of the places occupied by

Neanderthals based on archeological findings in the Shanidar Cave settlement.[23] A large amount of pottery shards dating to the Ubaid period were also excavated from several Tells in the city.[24]

Ancient

Arrapkha was a part of Sargon of Akkad's Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC),[25] and city was exposed to the raids of the Lullubi during Naram-Sin's reign.[26]

Later the city was occupied around 2150 BC by

Babylonian Empire, after which it again became a part of Assyria
c.1725 BC.

However, by the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. the

Gasur and Arrapkha under their control.[29] From c.1450 to 1393 BC the kings of Assyria paid tribute to the kingdom of Mittani.[29]

The Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) overthrew the Hurri-Mitanni in the mid 14th century BC and Arrapha once more became incorporated into Assyria proper. In the 11th and 10th centuries BC the city rose to prominence, becoming an important city in Assyria until the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC).[30]

The Hurri-Mitanni domination of Assyria was broken in the 1390s BC, and Arrapkha once more became an integral part of Assyria with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) which saw the Hurrian population driven from the region. It remained as such throughout the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) where it became an important Assyrian city.

After the fall of Assyria between 612 and 599 BC it was still an integral part of the geo-political province of Assyria –

Sassanid eras Kirkuk was capital of the small Assyrian state of Beth Garmai (c.160 BC–250 AD).[31]

The city briefly came to be part of the short-lived

Athura (Achaemenid Assyria).[32][33]

Later it became part of the

Assuristan
(Sassanid Assyria).

In AD 341, the

Peutinger Map of this time. The city remained a part of the Sassanid Empire until the Islamic conquest
in the mid 7th century AD.

Islamic Conquests of Mesopotamia

Persia centred succeeding Turkic federations in the region, namely that of the Qara Qoyunlu, and the Aq Qoyunlu specifically. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 the city came under the Soran Emirate control until it was taken over by Babanids in 1694. In 1851 it became under direct control of the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman rule continued until World War I when the Ottomans were pushed out of the region by the British Empire
.

British occupation

At the end of World War I, the British occupied Kirkuk on 7 May 1918. Abandoning the city after about two weeks, the British returned to Kirkuk a few months later after the Armistice of Mudros. Kirkuk avoided the troubles caused by the Kurdish nationalist Mahmud Barzanji, who quickly attempted to overthrow the British Mandate in Iraq and establish his own fiefdom in Sulaymaniyah.

A photograph of Ben Zion Israeli in Kirkuk Iraq, 1933

Entry into the Kingdom of Iraq

As both Turkey and Great Britain desperately wanted control of the

question of Mosul was sent to the League of Nations. A committee travelled to the area before coming to a final decision: the territory south of the "Brussels line" belonged to Iraq. By the Treaty of Angora of 1926, Kirkuk became a part of the Kingdom of Iraq
.

Discovery of oil

Main article: Kirkuk Field
Baba Gurgur

In 1927, Iraqi and

oil gusher at Baba Gurgur ("St. Blaze" or father blaze in Kurdish) near Kirkuk. The IPC began exports from the Kirkuk oil field in 1934. The Company moved its headquarters from Tuz Khormatu to a camp on the outskirts of Kirkuk, which they named Arrapha after the ancient city. Arrapha remains a large neighborhood in Kirkuk to this day. The IPC exercised significant political power in the city and played a central role in Kirkuk's urbanization, initiating housing and development projects in collaboration with Iraqi authorities in the 1940s and 1950s.[36]

The presence of the oil industry had an effect on Kirkuk's demographics. The exploitation of Kirkuk's oil, which began around 1930, attracted both Arabs and Kurds to the city in search of work. Kirkuk, which had been a predominantly Iraqi Turkmen city, gradually lost its uniquely Turkmen character.

Kurdish with Arabs constituting 22.53% of its population. Assyrians comprised 1.25% of the population.[41][42]

Some analysts believe that poor

reservoir-management practices during the Saddam Hussein years may have seriously, and even permanently, damaged Kirkuk's oil field. One example showed an estimated 1,500,000,000 barrels (240,000,000 m3) of excess fuel oil being reinjected. Other problems include refinery residue and gas-stripped oil. Fuel oil reinjection has increased oil viscosity at Kirkuk making it more difficult and expensive to get the oil out of the ground.[43]

Over all, between April 2003 and late December 2004 there were an estimated 123 attacks on Iraqi energy infrastructures, including the country's 7,000 km-long

pipeline system. In response to these attacks, which cost Iraq billions of US dollars in lost oil-export revenues and repair costs, the US military set up the Task Force Shield to guard Iraq's energy infrastructure and the Kirkuk–Ceyhan Oil Pipeline in particular. In spite of the fact that little damage was done to Iraq's oil fields during the war itself, looting and sabotage after the war ended was highly destructive and accounted for perhaps eighty percent of the total damage.[44]

The discovery of vast quantities of oil in the region after World War I provided the impetus for the annexation of the former Ottoman Vilayet of Mosul (of which the Kirkuk region was a part), to the Iraqi Kingdom, established in 1921. Since then and particularly from 1963 onwards, there have been continuous attempts to transform the ethnic make-up of the region.

Pipelines from Kirkuk run through Turkey to Ceyhan on the Mediterranean Sea and were one of the two main routes for the export of Iraqi oil under the Oil-for-Food Programme following the Gulf War of 1991. This was in accordance with a United Nations mandate that at least 50% of the oil exports pass through Turkey. There were two parallel lines built in 1977 and 1987.

Kurdish autonomy and Arabization

In 1970 the Iraqi government reached an agreement with Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani called the March Agreement of 1970, but the question of whether the oil-rich province of Kirkuk would be included within the Kurdish autonomous region remained unresolved, pending a new census.[37][45]

Despite the signing of the March Agreement, relations between the Kurds and Iraqi government continued to deteriorate due to the unresolved status of Kirkuk, and there were two attempts to assassinate Barzani in 1972. In response to Barzani's continued demands during the early 1970s for Kirkuk to be recognized as part of the autonomous region under the terms of the March Agreement, settlement construction for newly arrived Arab families increased drastically as the

Ba'athist government implemented Arabization policies to increase the Arab population of Kirkuk. Kurds were forbidden from buying property in Kirkuk, and could sell their properties only to Arabs. They were denied permission to renovate properties in need of maintenance, and poor Shi'a Arab families were paid to move to Kirkuk, while Kurds were paid to move out.[45]

Negotiations between Barzani's

Kurdish Democratic Party and the Iraqi government collapsed in March 1974 and Barzani rejected President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr declaration of Kurdish autonomy. Many disputes persisted between the Kurds and Arabs and the conflict escalated into the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (also called the Barzani rebellion). The rebellion collapsed after Iran withdrew its support for Barzani's forces following the 1975 Algiers Agreement and the Ba'ath regime intensified Arabization efforts.[45][46]

After Barzani's rebellion was defeated in 1974, the districts of Chemchemal and

1991 uprisings. Kurdish villages were razed and thousands of new homes were built, including at least 200 homes for relatives of Iraqi soldiers killed during the Iran-Iraq War.[45] Between 1968, when the Ba'ath Party first rose to power in Iraq, and 2003 between 200,000 and 300,000 persons were forcibly relocated out of Kirkuk.[48] According to the Iraqi Ministry of Planning, by August 2005 (during the Iraq War), approximately 224,544 Kurds had returned to Kirkuk and 52,973 Arab persons had left the city.[47]

Nationalization of Iraqi Petroleum Company

In 1972 the Iraqi government, led by then Vice-President Saddam Hussein, nationalized the

Iraqi Petroleum Company (IPC), after being unable to reach an agreement that would increase oil exports and resolve a longstanding dispute over Law 80 of 1961. The Iraqi government began to sell its oil to Eastern bloc countries and the IPC's French partner CFP. After reaching an agreement with the Iraqis in 1973, the IPC members were able to retain some of their interests in southern Iraq through the Basra Petroleum Company but had lost Iraq's main oilfields, including the Kirkuk field.[49]

Gulf War

In 1991, Saddam Hussein invaded

Dohuk and Sulaymaniyah.[51]

Iraq War (2003–2011) and return of displaced Kurds

Iraqi Personnel Graduate From Kirkuk

American and British military forces led an invasion of Iraq in March 2003, marking the start of the Second Iraq War. Kurdish peshmerga fighters assisted in the 2003 capture of Kirkuk. Though the peshmerga were allowed to operate even after the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) disbanded and outlawed most of the armed militias in Iraq, the peshmerga were eventually asked to withdraw from Kirkuk and other Kurdish held provinces.[52]

Under the supervision of chief executive of

ethnic groups was invited to send a 39-member delegation
from which they would be allowed to select six to sit on the City Council. Another six council members were selected from among 144 delegates to represent independents social groups such as teachers, lawyers, religious leaders and artists.

Kirkuk's 30 members council is made up of five blocs of six members each. Four of those blocs are formed along ethnic lines—

Arabic
: اسماعيل احمد رجب الحديدي), as deputy mayor went some way towards addressing Arab concerns.

On 30 June 2005, through a secret direct voting process, with the participation of the widest communities in the province and despite all the political legal security complexities of this process in the country generally and in Kirkuk in particular, Kirkuk witnessed the birth of its first elected Provincial Council. The Independent Electoral Commission of Iraq IECI approved the elections and announced the outcome of this process, which filled the 41 seats of Kirkuk Provincial Council as follows:

  • 26 seats 367 List Kirkuk Brotherhood List KBL
  • 8 seats 175 List Iraqi Turkmen Front ITF
  • 5 seats 299 List Iraqi Republic Gathering
  • 1 seats 178 List Turkmen Islamic Coalition
  • 1 seats 289 List Iraqi National Gathering

The new Kirkuk Provincial Council started its second turn on 6 March 2005. Its inaugural session was dedicated to the introduction of its new members, followed by an oath ceremony supervised by Judge Thahir Hamza Salman, the Head of Kirkuk Appellate Court.

Kirkuk is located in a disputed area of Iraq that runs from Sinjar on the Syrian border southeast to Khanaqin and Mandali on the Iranian border.[53] Kirkuk has been a disputed territory for around eighty years — Kurds wanted Kirkuk to become part of the Kurdistan Region, which has been opposed by the region's Arab and Turkmen populations.[54]

The Kurds sought to annex the long disputed territory to the

Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) through Article 140 of the Iraqi Constitution that was enacted in 2005.[55][54] Under Article 140 the Ba'athist Arabization policy would be reversed: Displaced Kurds who had relocated to areas in the Kurdish autonomous region would return to Kirkuk, while the Arab Shi'a population would be compensated and relocated to areas in the south. After the Ba'athist regimes demographic and redistricting policies were undone a census and referendum would determine whether Kirkuk would be administered by the KRG or Baghdad.[53]

Following the 2010 parliamentary election the Kurds signed the Erbil Agreement and backed Nouri al-Maliki on the condition that Article 140 would be implemented.[52]

Violence after U.S. withdrawal

Three churches in Kirkuk were targeted with bombs in August 2011.[56] On 12 July 2013, Kirkuk was hit by a deadly bomb, killing 38 people in an attack on a café. A few days prior, on 11 July 2013, over 40 people were killed in a series of bombings and shootings across Iraq, including in Kirkuk.[57]

Kurdish control (2014–2017)

On 12 June 2014, following the

Kurdistan Regional Government then took the city.[58][59]

On 21 October 2016, the Islamic State launched

Battle of Mosul. Witnesses reported multiple explosions and gun battles in the city, most centered on a government compound. At least 11 workers, including several Iranians, were killed by a suicide bomber at a power plant in nearby Dibis.[60] The attack was brought to an end by 24 October, with 74 militants being killed and others (including the leader) being arrested.[61]

Kurdification

Under Kurdish control, Turkmen and Arab residents in Kirkuk experienced intimidation, harassment and were forced to leave their homes, in order to increase the Kurdish demographic in Kirkuk and bolster their claims to the city. Multiple Human Rights Watch reports detail the confiscation of Turkmen and Arab families' documents, preventing them from voting, buying property and travelling. Turkmen residents of Kirkuk were detained by Kurdish forces and compelled to leave the city. Kurdish authorities expelled hundreds of Arab families from the city, demolishing their homes in the process.[62][63]

United Nations reports since 2006 have documented that Kurdish authorities and Peshmerga militia forces were illegally policing Kirkuk and other disputed areas, and that these militia have abducted Turkmen and Arabs, subjecting them to torture.[64]

Iraqi central government control (2017–present)

See also: 2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict

On 16 October 2017, the Iraqi national army and PMF militia retook control[65] of Kirkuk as the Peshmerga forces fled the city without fighting.[66][67][68]

Kirkuk has been a disputed territory for around eighty years. The KRG wanted Kirkuk to become part of the Kurdistan Region, which is opposed by the region's Arab and Turkmen populations.[69]

There has been a long planned referendum to resolve Kirkuk's status under Article 140 of the Iraqi Constitution.[52]

Anti-Kurdish unrest started in Kirkuk after the building used by the Joint Operation Command in Iraq was transferred to the KDP.

Demographics

Kirkuk in Kâmûsü'l-A'lâm.

Şemseddin Sâmi mentioned Kirkuk city in the Kâmûsü'l-A'lâm written in the late 19th century. And says "Kirkuk is located to the southeast of the Mosul vilayet in Kurdistan, with a population of 30,000." then he says "The Kurds make up three-quarters of the people of Kirkuk, and the rest are Turks, Arabs, 760 Jews and 460 Chaldeans."[70][71]

Kirkuk's population was predominantly Turkmen in the early 20th century, when Turkish was the most common language spoken at home. The city had a population near 30,000 in the late 1910s. The Turkmen were majority in the city centre, dominating the political and economic life of the area.[72][73][74]

The most reliable census concerning the ethnic composition of Kirkuk dates back to 1957. The Turkish-speaking Turkmen formed the majority in the city of Kirkuk, whilst the Kurds were the plurality in the governorate. The provincial borders were later altered, the province was renamed al-Ta'mim, and some Kurdish-majority districts were added to Erbil and Sulamaniya provinces.[75]

Census results for the city proper of Kirkuk in 1957[76]
Mother tongue Population Percentage
Turkish (Turkmen)
 45,306 37.6%
Kurdish 40,047 33.3%
Arabic
 27,127 22.5%
Syriac 1,509 1.3%
Hebrew 101 0.1%
Total 120,402

A report by the

Arabisation.[77]

Ethnic groups

Ethnic groups in Kirkuk and its environs in 2014, at the time of the capture of the area by Kurdish forces.

After attacks by ISIS, Kurdish authorities who were suspicious of the Arab refugees in Kirkuk, expelled hundreds of Arab families who had fled to the region during Iraq's war against ISIS. The refugees were sent to camps for the displaced or to their places of origin. Some of the displaced described themselves as locals and not as internally displaced.[78]

Arabs

The principal Arab extended families in the city of Kirkuk were: the

Arabic: آل جبور). The Al-Ubaid came from just northwest of Mosul when they were forced out of the area by other Arab tribes of that region. They settled in the Hawija district in Kirkuk in 1805 during the Ottoman Period.[79]

Armenians

In 2017, around 30

Armenian families resided in the city. The community has also an Armenian Apostolic church.[80][81]

Assyrians

The Seleucid town, like many other Upper Mesopotamian cities had a significant indigenous Assyrian population. Christianity was established among them in the 2nd century by the bishop Tuqrītā (Theocritos).[82] During the Sasanian times the town became an important centre of the

Shemon Bar Sabbae.[84]
The city was known as the centre of the prosperous
Timur Leng in 1400 A.D. During the Ottoman period most of Kirkuk's Christians followed the Chaldean Catholic Church whose bishop resided in the Cathedral of the Great Martyrion which dates back to the 5th century. The cathedral was however used as a powder storage and was blown up as the Ottomans retreated in 1918.[85]

The discovery of oil brought more Christians to Kirkuk, however they were also affected by the Arabization policy of the Baath Party.[86] Their numbers continued to plummet after the American invasion,[87] and they occupy 4% of municipal offices, a percentage thought to be representative of their numbers in the city.[88]

Jews

Jews had a long history in Kirkuk. Ottoman records show that in 1560 there were 104 Jewish homes in Kirkuk,

better source needed
]

Kurds

Kirkuk is claimed by the

Kurdistan Regional Government as its capital, but they do not control the city or province, and Kirkuk is not part of the Kurdistan Region. The last reliable census shows that the Kurds constituted less than a third of Kirkuk's population.[92][93][94]

Provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres for an independent Kurdistan (in 1920)

The

Sharazor, in present-day Iraqi Kurdistan. The first member of the clan to gain control of the province and its capital, Kirkuk, was Sulayman Beg. Enjoying almost full autonomy, the Baban family established Kirkuk as their capital. It was from this time that Kurds in Iraq began to view Kirkuk as their capital. This persisted even after the Babans moved their administration to the new town of Sulaymaniya, named after the dynasty's founder, in the late 18th century.[95]

Turkmens

National Pact

Iraqi Turkmens view the city as their capital, with the last reliable census showing the city of Kirkuk had a Turkmen majority.[96][97]

In the city of Kirkuk, Turkmens reside in the neighborhoods of Tisin, Musalla, Korya, Baghdad Road, Sarıkahya, Şaturlu, Beyler, Piryadi, Almas, Arafa, Bulak, Çukur, İmam Abbas, Cırıt Square, Çay, 1 June and Beşiktaş. They are sparsely dispersed in other neighborhoods. It is also known that Christian Turkmens live in the neighborhoods of Şaturlu, Almas and Arafa in Kirkuk. There are many Turkmen villages around Kirkuk. These villages include Türkalan, Yayçı, Çardaklı, Kızılyar, Kümbetler, Bulova and Beşir.[98]

The riverfront, the historical homes, alleyways, the old cemeteries, and the prevailing musical modes of Kirkuk historically belong to the Turkmen. The old names of most of the villages and districts in Kirkuk, as well as the prevalent trades and occupations, trace back to Turkmen families.[99]

The

Turkish state.[102]

In particular, following the conquest of Iraq by the Ottoman sultan

Turkmens were majority in the city center, dominating the political and economic life of the area.[72][73]

Currently Iraqi Turkmen politicians hold just over 20 percent of seats on Kirkuk's city council, while Turkmen leaders say they make up nearly a third of the city.[103]

Main sites

Ancient architectural monuments of Kirkuk include:

The archaeological sites of Qal'at

Yorgan Tepe are found at the outskirts of the modern city. In 1997, there were reports that the government of Saddam Hussein "demolished Kirkuk's historic citadel with its mosques and ancient church".[104]

The architectural heritage of Kirkuk sustained serious damage during World War I (when some pre-Muslim Assyrian Christian monuments were destroyed) and, more recently, during the Iraq War. Simon Jenkins reported in June 2007 that "eighteen ancient shrines have been lost, ten in Kirkuk and the south in the past month alone".[105]

Geography

Climate

Kirkuk experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh) with extremely hot and dry summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall. Snow is rare but it fell on 22 February 2004,[106] and from 10 to 11 January 2008.[107]

Climate data for Kirkuk (1991–2020)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 14.4
(57.9) 		16.4
(61.5) 		21.0
(69.8) 		27.0
(80.6) 		34.4
(93.9) 		40.7
(105.3) 		43.8
(110.8) 		43.6
(110.5) 		38.6
(101.5) 		31.6
(88.9) 		22.9
(73.2) 		16.6
(61.9) 		29.3
(84.6)
Daily mean °C (°F) 9.6
(49.3) 		11.3
(52.3) 		15.6
(60.1) 		21.2
(70.2) 		28.2
(82.8) 		34.1
(93.4) 		36.9
(98.4) 		36.5
(97.7) 		31.6
(88.9) 		25.4
(77.7) 		16.7
(62.1) 		11.5
(52.7) 		23.2
(73.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 5.2
(41.4) 		6.4
(43.5) 		10.7
(51.3) 		14.9
(58.8) 		21.1
(70.0) 		26.4
(79.5) 		29.3
(84.7) 		28.9
(84.0) 		24.6
(76.3) 		19.5
(67.1) 		11.5
(52.7) 		6.7
(44.1) 		17.1
(62.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 66.6
(2.62) 		54.7
(2.15) 		50.7
(2.00) 		37.8
(1.49) 		14.0
(0.55) 		0.1
(0.00) 		0.3
(0.01) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.7
(0.03) 		14.9
(0.59) 		43.1
(1.70) 		54.9
(2.16) 		337.8
(13.3)
Average precipitation days 11 11 11 9 5 0 0 0 0 5 7 10 69
Average
relative humidity
(%) 		72.4 67.1 58.0 51.2 35.7 25.3 23.6 25.3 29.3 40.5 59.0 69.4 46.4
Source: WMO (precipitation days 1976-2008)[108] [109]

Notable people

See also

Notes

  1. doi:10.1111/j.1949-3606.2010.00002.x
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  2. ^ "Iraq - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  3. ^ "كركوك.. محافظة عراقية تتنازعها القوميات" (in Arabic). Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  4. ^ "محافظة كركوك کەرکووک Kerkûk" (in Kurdish and Arabic). 14 April 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  5. ^ "Zowaa" (PDF). Bahra Magazine. 2005.
  6. ^ "Irak'ın Kerkük kentindeki patlamalarda 16 kişi yaralandı". Anadolu Agency (in Turkish). Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  7. ^ "Google Maps Distance Calculator". Daftlogic.com. 12 January 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  8. S2CID 145293772
    .
  9. ^ "Kirkuk: A major centre of Iraqi Turkmen culture | Nazli Tarzi". Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  10. ^ "العبادي: نريد فرض سلطة اتحادية في "العراق المصغر"". Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  11. ^ "قضية كركوك: رؤية في الأبعاد الإستراتيجية والحلول المقترحة". fcdrs.com (in Arabic). Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  12. JSTOR 596231
    .
  13. ISBN 978-0-8006-6085-7
    .
  14. ^ Edward Balfour, Encyclopaedia Asiatica, p. 214, Cosmo Publications, 1976
  15. ^ Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Karka d-Beth Slokh — ܟܪܟܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܣܠܘܟ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified January 14, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/108.
  16. ^ The Acts of Mar Mari the Apostle By Amir Harrak. p. 27.
  17. ^ The World's Greatest Story: The Epic of the Jewish People in Biblical Times By Joan Comay. p. 384.
  18. ^ "Garmai is the plural of Garma/Garmo meaning "bone"". Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
  19. ^ Grant, Asahel (1841). Nestorians. Harper. pp. 52.
  20. ^ a b "Iraq's Policy of Ethnic Cleansing: Onslaught to change national/demographic characteristics of the Kirkuk Region by Nouri Talabany" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007.
  21. ^ meaning of Karkha in Syriac Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Syriac dictionary
  22. ^ Kirkuk and its dependencies: Historically part of Kurdistan – II by Mufid Abdulla Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  23. ^ Edwards, Gadd & Hammond 1991, p. 256
  24. ^ Edwards, Gadd & Hammond 1991, p. 374
  25. ^ Edwards, Charlesworth & Boardman 1970, p. 433
  26. ^ Edwards, Charlesworth & Boardman 1970, p. 443
  27. ^ William Gordon East, Oskar Hermann Khristian Spate (1961). The Changing Map of Asia: A Political Geography, 436 pages, p: 105
  28. ^ Georges Roux- Ancient Iraq
  29. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7188-2950-6
    . Retrieved 3 January 2013.
  30. ^ Talabany, Nouri (1999). "Iraq's Policy of Ethnic Cleansing: Onslaught to change national/demographic characteristics of the Kirkuk Region". Archived from the original on 9 September 2001. Retrieved 5 June 2006.
  31. ^ "BĒṮ GARMĒ". Iranica. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  32. ^ Martin Sicker. The Pre-Islamic Middle East, Page 68.
  33. ^ I. E. S. Edwards, John Boardman, John B. Bury, S. A. Cook. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 178-179.
  34. ISBN 978-3-447-03652-8
    .
  35. ^ "OCA – Hieromartyr Simeon the Bishop in Persia, and those with him in Persia". Ocafs.oca.org. 17 April 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  36. ^ Bet-Shlimon, Arbella. 2013. The Politics and Ideology of Urban Development in Iraq's Oil City: Kirkuk, 1946–58. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 33, no. 1.
  37. ^
    ISBN 9781850434160
    . "It now began to look as if the Baath were playing for time and the year 1971 brought a disintegration of trust between the two parties. The central issue was a demographic one. The census (Article 14) for disputed areas planned for December 1970 had been postponed till the spring by mutual agreement, but when spring came it was unilaterally postponed sine die. Mulla Mustafa accused the government of resettling Arabs in the contested areas, Kirkuk, Khanaqin and Sinjar, and told the government he would not accept the census results if they indicated an Arab majority. He also dismissed the offer of the 1965 census, which he said was forged. When the government proposed to apply the 1957 census to Kirkuk, Mulla Mustafa refused it, since this was bound to show that the Turkomans, although outnumbered in the governorate as a whole, were still predominant in Kirkuk town. Given the residual animosity after the events of July 1959, the Turkomans were likely to opt for Ba'ati rather than Kurdish rule. The Baath thought the Kurds might be packing disputed areas with Kurds from Iran and Turkey, but the real tensions surfaced over the Faili Kurds, resident in Iraq since Ottoman days and yet without Iraqi citizenship. The government argued they were Iranians, and now determined their fate by the simple expedient of expelling roughly 50,000 of them from September onwards."
  38. ISBN 9781850434160
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  39. ISBN 9781850434160
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References

Further reading

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