Koxinga
Zheng Chenggong 鄭成功 | |||||
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Hirado, Hizen Province, Japan | |||||
Died | 23 June 1662 Anping, Kingdom of Tungning | (aged 37)||||
Burial | |||||
Spouse | Dong You, Princess Wu of Chao[1] | ||||
Issue | Zheng Jing and nine other sons, four daughters | ||||
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House | Koxinga | ||||
Dynasty | Tungning | ||||
Father | Zheng Zhilong | ||||
Mother | Tagawa Matsu |
Koxinga | ||||||
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Traditional Chinese | 國姓爺 | |||||
Hokkien POJ | Kok-sèng-iâ Kok-sìⁿ-iâ | |||||
Literal meaning | Lord of the Imperial Surname | |||||
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Zheng Chenggong | ||||||
Traditional Chinese | 鄭成功 | |||||
Hokkien POJ | Tīⁿ Sêng-kong | |||||
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Zheng Sen | ||||||
Traditional Chinese | 鄭森 | |||||
Hokkien POJ | Tīⁿ Sim | |||||
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Zheng Chenggong, Prince of Yanping (
In 1661, Koxinga defeated the Dutch outposts on Taiwan[2][3] and established a dynasty, the House of Koxinga, which ruled part of the island as the Kingdom of Tungning from 1661 to 1683.
Biography
Early years
Zheng Chenggong was born in 1624 in
In 1638, Zheng became a
In 1644, following the fall of
Under the Longwu Emperor
In 1645, the Prince of Tang was installed on the throne of the
Owing to the natural defenses of Fujian and the military resources of the Zheng family, the emperor was able to remain safe for some time.[15] The Longwu Emperor granted Zheng Zhilong's son, Zheng Sen, a new given name, Chenggong (成功; Chénggōng; Sêng-kong; 'success'), and the title of Koxinga ("Lord of the Imperial Surname").[15] One of his cousins also had it.[16]
In 1646, Koxinga first led the Ming armies to resist the Manchu invaders and won the favor of the Longwu Emperor. The Longwu Emperor's reign in Fuzhou was brief, as Zheng Zhilong refused to support his plans for a counteroffensive against the rapidly expanding forces of the newly established Qing dynasty by the Manchus. Zheng Zhilong ordered the defending general of Xianxia Pass (仙霞關), Shi Fu (a.k.a. Shi Tianfu, a relative of Shi Lang), to retreat to Fuzhou even when Qing armies approached Fujian. For this reason, the Qing army faced little resistance when it conquered the north of the pass. In September 1646, Qing armies broke through the inadequately defended mountain passes and entered Fujian. Zheng Zhilong retreated to his coastal fortress and the Longwu Emperor faced the Qing armies alone. Longwu's forces were destroyed; he was captured and was executed in October 1646.[17]
Zheng Zhilong's surrender and the death of Tagawa
The Qing forces sent envoys to meet Zheng Zhilong secretly and offered to appoint him as the governor of both Fujian and
Following the fall of Tong'an to Zheng, the Manchus launched a counterattack in the spring of 1647, during which they stormed the Zheng family's hometown of Anping. Koxinga's mother, Lady Tagawa, had come from Japan in 1645 to join her family in Fujian (Koxinga's younger brother, Tagawa Shichizaemon, remained in Japan).[20] She did not follow her husband to surrender to the Qing dynasty. She was caught by Manchu forces in Anping and committed suicide after refusal to submit to the enemy, according to traditional accounts.[21]
Resistance to the Qing
By 1650, Koxinga was strong enough to establish himself as the head of the
Koxinga had a series of military successes in 1651 and 1652 that increased the Qing government's anxiety over the threat he posed.[24] Zheng Zhilong wrote a letter to his son from Beijing, presumably at the request of the Shunzhi Emperor and the Qing government, urging his son to negotiate with the Manchurians. The long series of negotiations between Koxinga and the Qing dynasty lasted until November 1654. The negotiations ultimately failed. The Qing government then appointed Prince Jidu (son of Jirgalang) to lead an attack on Koxinga's territory after this failure.[25]
On 9 May 1656, Jidu's armies attacked Kinmen (Quemoy), an island near Xiamen that Koxinga had been using to train his troops. Partly as a result of a major storm, the Manchus were defeated, and they lost most of their fleet in the battle.[26] Koxinga had sent one of his naval commanders to capture Zhoushan island prior to Jidu's attack,[27] and now that the Manchus were temporarily without an effective naval force in the Fujian area, Koxinga was free to send a huge army to Zhoushan, which he intended to use as a base to capture Nanjing.
Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having the initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle in Nanjing ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against the Dutch at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay, throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of the Grand Canal leading to possible starvation in Beijing caused such fear that the Manchus considered returning to Manchuria and abandoning China according to a 1671 account by a French missionary.[28] The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that the Qing were considering abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Koxinga which he himself was preparing to do. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing the Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing.[29]
Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on 24 August. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements — though cavalry attacks by the city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and slipped back to the ships which had brought them.[30]
In Taiwan
In 1661, Koxinga led his troops on a landing at Lakjemuyse[31] to attack the Dutch colonists in Dutch Formosa.[32][33] Koxinga said to the Dutch "Hitherto this island had always belonged to China, and the Dutch had doubtless been permitted to live there, seeing that the Chinese did not require it for themselves; but requiring it now, it was only fair that Dutch strangers, who came from far regions, should give way to the masters of the island."[34]
The
On 1 February 1662, the Dutch Governor of Formosa, Frederick Coyett, surrendered Fort Zeelandia to Koxinga. According to Frederick Coyett's own self-justifying account written after the siege, Koxinga's life was saved at the end of the siege by a certain Hans Jurgen Radis of Stockaert, a Dutch defector who strongly advised him against visiting the ramparts of the fort after he had taken it, which Radis knew would be blown up by the retreating Dutch forces.[37] This claim of a Dutch defector only appears in Coyett's account and Chinese records make no mention of any defector. In the peace treaty, Koxinga was styled "Lord Teibingh Tsiante Teysiancon Koxin" (simplified Chinese: 大明招讨大将军国姓; traditional Chinese: 大明招討大將軍國姓; pinyin: Dàmíng Zhāotǎo Dàjiāngjūn Guóxìng; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tāibêng Chiauthó Tāichiang-kun Kok-sìⁿ; lit. 'Great Ming Commander in Chief of the Punitive Expedition (Lord) Imperial-Surname').[38] This effectively ended 38 years of Dutch rule on Taiwan. Koxinga then devoted himself to transforming Taiwan into a military base for loyalists who wanted to restore the Ming dynasty.
Koxinga formulated a plan to give oxen and farming tools and teach farming techniques to the Taiwanese Aboriginals, giving them Ming gowns and caps and gifting tobacco to Aboriginals who were gathering in crowds to meet and welcome him as he visited their villages after he defeated the Dutch.[39]
In the Philippines
In 1662, Koxinga's forces raided several towns in the Philippines. Koxinga's chief advisor was an Italian friar named Vittorio Riccio, whom he sent to Manila to demand tribute from the colonial government of the Spanish East Indies, threatening to expel the Spaniards if his demands were not met.[40] The Spanish refused to pay the tribute and reinforced the garrisons around Manila, but the planned attack never took place due to Koxinga's sudden death in that year after expelling the Dutch from Taiwan.[41]
Koxinga's threat to invade the islands and expel the Spanish was an important factor in the Spanish failure to conquer the Muslim Moro people in Mindanao. The threat of Chinese invasion forced the Spanish to withdraw their forces to Manila. They immediately evacuated their fort on Zamboanga in Mindanao following Koxinga's threats. They left some troops in Jolo and by Lake Lanao to engage the Moro in protracted conflict. They permanently abandoned their colony in the Maluku Islands (Moluccas) and withdraw their soldiers from there to Manila.
Tonio Andrade judged that Koxinga would most likely have been able to defeat the Spanish if the threatened invasion had taken place.[42]
Death
Koxinga died of malaria in June 1662, only a few months after defeating the Dutch in Taiwan, at the age of 37. There were speculations that he died in a sudden fit of madness when his officers refused to carry out his orders to execute his son Zheng Jing. Zheng Jing had had an affair with his wet nurse and conceived a child with her.[43] Zheng Jing succeeded his father as the King of Tungning.
As he descended into death, Koxinga relented and agreed to let his son Zheng Jing succeed him. Koxinga died as he passed into delirium and madness and expressed his regrets to his family and father.[44]
Family
Zheng Chenggong’s short but eventful career was characterized by family tension and conflicting loyalties. The title of Koxinga ("Lord of the Imperial Surname") was one that Zheng himself used during his lifetime to emphasize his status as an adopted son of the deposed imperial house, so it was also a declaration of ongoing support to the Ming dynasty.[45] Despite his deliberate self-identification as the noble, loyal vassal of a vanquished master, Koxinga’s actual relationship with the Longwu Emperor lasted only twelve months or so, beginning in September 1645 and ending with the Emperor's death the following year.[46] Although many secondary sources claim that the two men shared a "close bond of affection", there is an absence of any reliable contemporary evidence on Koxinga’s relationship with the Longwu Emperor.[47]
In contrast, Koxinga's father Zheng Zhilong left his Japanese wife not long after the birth of his son;[48] Koxinga was a boy of seven when he finally joined his father on the Fujianese coast.[49] It seems that Zheng Zhilong recognized his son’s talent and encouraged him in his studies and the pursuit of a career as a scholar-official, which would legitimize the power the Zheng family had acquired, using sometimes questionable means.[12] Zheng Zhilong’s defection to the Qing must have seemed opportunistic and in stark contrast to Koxinga’s continued loyalty to the Ming. But it is difficult to deny that in refusing to submit to the Qing, Koxinga was risking the life of his father, and that the subsequent death of Zheng Zhilong could only be justified by claiming loyalty to the Ming.[50] It has even been suggested that Koxinga’s fury at the incestuous relationship between his son, Zheng Jing, and a younger son’s wet nurse was due to the fact that strict Confucian morality had played such a crucial role in justifying his lack of filial behaviour.[47]
The one possible exception to this may have been his relationship with his mother, which has generally been described as being extremely affectionate, particularly in Chinese and Japanese sources.[51] Their time together, however, was apparently very short – despite frequent entreaties from Zheng Zhilong for her to join him in China,[52] Koxinga’s mother was only reunited with her son some time in 1645, and a year later she was killed when the Qing took Xiamen.[53]
A portrait of Zheng was in the hands of Yuchun who was his descendant in the eight generation.[54]
Koxinga's descendants live in both mainland China and Taiwan and descendants of his brother Shichizaemon live in Japan. His descendants through his grandson Zheng Keshuang served as Bannermen in Beijing until 1911 when the Xinhai revolution broke out and the Qing dynasty fell, after which they moved back to Anhai and Nan'an in southern Fujian. They still live there to this day.[55] His descendants through one of his sons Zheng Kuan live in Taiwan.[56]
One of Koxinga's descendants on mainland China, Zheng Xiaoxuan 鄭曉嵐, fought against the Japanese invaders in the Second Sino-Japanese War. His son Zheng Chouyu was born in Shandong in mainland China and called himself a "child of the resistance" against Japan and he became a refugee during the war, moving from place to place across China to avoid the Japanese. He moved to Taiwan in 1949 and focuses his poetry work on building stronger ties between Taiwan and mainland China.[57] Zheng Chouyu identified as Chinese. He felt alienated after he was forced to move to Taiwan in 1949 which was previously under Japanese rule and felt strange and foreign to him.[58] Chouyu is Koxinga's 11th generation descendant and his original name is Zheng Wenji.[59]
"Koxinga: Chronicles of the Tei Family" was written by R. A. B. Posonby-Fane.[60]
Consorts and issue
- Dong You, Queen of Tungning (董友)
- Zheng Jing ( 鄭經延平王; 25 October 1642 – 17 March 1681), Prince of Yanping, first son
- Zheng Cong (輔政公 鄭聰), Duke Fu of Zheng, second son
- Zheng Yu (鄭裕;1660–1737), seventh son
- Lady Chuang (莊氏)
- Zheng Ming (鄭明), third son
- Zheng Rui (鄭睿), fourth son
- Zheng Zhi (鄭智;1660–1695), fifth son
- Lady Wen (溫氏)
- Zheng Kuan (鄭寬), sixth son
- Zheng Rou (鄭柔), ninth son
- Lady Shi (史氏)
- Zheng Wen (鄭溫;1662–1704), eight son
- Lady Chai (蔡氏)
- Zheng Fa (鄭發), tenth son
- Unknown:
- four daughters
Concubine
In 1661, during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia, Koxinga executed Dutch missionary Antonius Hambroek and took his teenage daughter as a concubine.[61][62] Other Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their "wives".[63] In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[64]
Personality
Koxinga was reputed to be mentally unstable: to have a vicious temper and a tendency towards ordering executions. While this might be explained by the trauma of his family being killed by the Qing army and his mother's reported suicide (in order to prevent capture by the Qing), it was also speculated that he suffered from syphilis, a suspicion held by a Dutch doctor, Christian Beyer, who treated him.[65]
Vittorio Riccio, a
Koxinga suffered from "depressive insanity" and mental illness according to Dr. Li Yengyue.[69][70]
Modern-day legacy and influences
Worship
It is debated whether he was clean-shaven or wore a beard.[71]
Koxinga's legacy is treated similarly on each side of the
Koxinga's army also brought the Qinxi fraternal brotherhood into Taiwan, of which some of his army were members of the organization. In the present day, the Qinxi currently exists in Taiwan. The
Tokugawa Japan imported books from Qing China including works on the Zheng family. The Qing built a shrine to commemorate Koxinga to counteract the Japanese and French in Taiwan in the 19th century.[74] Zheng Juzhong's books Zheng Chenggong zhuan was imported to Japan and reprinted in 1771.[75][76]
In modern politics
Koxinga has received renewed attention since rumors began circulating that the
Koxinga is regarded as a hero in the
The
In Taiwan, Koxinga is remembered and revered as a divine national hero with hundreds of temples, schools, tertiary educations, and other public centers named in his honor. Koxinga is accredited with replacing Dutch colonial rule with a more modern political system. Furthermore, Koxinga transformed Taiwan into an agrarian society through the introduction of new agricultural methods such as the proliferation of iron farming tools and new farming methods with cattle. For these reasons, Koxinga is often associated with "hints of [a] consciousness of Taiwanese independence,"[78] although Koxinga himself wanted Taiwan unified with the rest of China. Great care was taken to symbolize support for the Ming legitimacy, an example being the use of the term guan instead of bu to name departments, since the latter is reserved for central government, whereas Taiwan was to be a regional office of the rightful Ming rule of China.[81]
In art
The play The Battles of Coxinga was written by Chikamatsu Monzaemon in Japan in the 18th century, first performed in Kyoto.[82][71] A 2001 film titled The Sino-Dutch War 1661 starred Vincent Zhao as Koxinga.[83] The film was renamed Kokusenya Kassen after the aforementioned play and released in Japan in 2002.
The historical novel Lord of Formosa by Dutch author Joyce Bergvelt uses Koxinga as the main character.[84]
In video games
- Zheng Chenggong appears as a Master in the 2023 Japanese video game Fate/Samurai Remnant, his Servant is the also Chinese general Zhou Yu.[85]
See also
- Anti-Qing sentiment
- Great Clearance (1661–1669)
- Pedro Yan Shiqi
- History of Taiwan
- Kingdom of Tungning
- Koxinga Ancestral Shrine
References
Citations
- ^ Wills (1974), p. 28 and Keene (1950), p. 46 both agree that Zheng's wife's surname was "Dong" (董). Clements (2004), p. 92 however, claims her name was "Deng Cuiying". Chang (1995), p. 740 introduces her as "Tung Ts'ui-ying", which would be "Dong Cuiying" in Hanyu Pinyin.
- ^ the London Times (26 November 1858). "The Pirates of the Chinese Seas". The New York Times.
- ^ Andrade (2008).
- ^ The China Review, Or, Notes and Queries on the Far East. "China Mail" Office. 1884. pp. 346–.
- ^ THe Orient. Orient Publishing Company. 1950. p. 20.
- ISBN 978-0-674-11753-2.
- ^ Croizier (1977), p. 11; Keene (1950), p. 45.
- ^ Andrade (2005), § 7.
- ^ "1.鄭成功の足跡と鄭成功が結ぶ友好国" (in Japanese). Tei-Sei-Kou Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 29 August 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-891640-46-9.
- ^ Andrade 2005.
- ^ a b Croizier (1977), p. 12.
- ^ Carioti, "The Zhengs' Maritime Power in the International Context of the 17th Century Far East Seas: The Rise of a 'Centralised Piratical Organisation' and Its Gradual Development into an Informal 'State'", p. 41, n. 29.
- ^ Mote & Twitchett (1988), p. 658–660.
- ^ a b Struve (1984), pp. 87–88.
- ^ 近松門左衛門; Mark Van Doren (1951). The battles of Coxinga: Chikamatsu's puppet play, its background and importance. Taylor's Foreign Press. p. 45.
- ^ Mote & Twitchett (1988), p. 675-676.
- ^ Struve (1984), p. 98.
- ^ Andrade (2005), § 12.
- ^ Keene (1950), p. 46.
- ^ a b c Struve (1984), p. 116.
- ^ "Koxinga Statue at Gulangyu receives Sculpture Achievement Award". Archived from the original on 25 September 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
- ^ Yan Xing. 臺南與鄭成功 [Tainan and Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga)]. Tainan Literature and History Research Database. National Museum of Taiwan History. Retrieved 12 February 2021. 這時成功意志堅决,便單獨倡導拒滿復明運動,以金,厦兩島爲根據地地,不斷地向閩,浙東南一進攻,奉永明王永曆正朔 [Then Chenggong (Koxinga) resolutely and independently advocated for the movement to resist the Manchus and restore Ming, with bases in Kinmen and Xiamen, continuously attacked southeastern Min (Fujian) and Zhejiang, pledged to serve the Youngli emperor of Ming].
- ^ Struve (1984), p. 159.
- ^ Struve (1984), p. 160–166.
- ^ Struve (1984), p. 181.
- ^ Struve (1984), p. 182.
- ^ Ho, Dahpon David (2011). Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China (PhD dissertation). UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO. pp. 149–150. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019.
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- ^ "The gate to Taiwan". 18 April 2013. Archived from the original on 7 February 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
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- ^ The Manchester Guardian Weekly. John Russell Scott for the Manchester Guardian. July 1950. p. 149.
- ^ Campbell (1903), p. 423.
- ISBN 978-0-932727-90-9. Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ISBN 978-9004165076. Archivedfrom the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ^ Campbell (1903), p. 452.
- ^ "Appendix 1 — Koxinga-Dutch Treaty (1662)". 1 February 1662. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
- ^ Xing Hang (2016), pp. 139–.
- ^ Davidson (1903), p. 51.
- JSTOR j.ctt1xcrpk.
- ^ "How Taiwan Became Chinese: Conclusion". www.gutenberg-e.org. Archived from the original on 2 April 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
- OCLC 123362609.
- ^ Xing Hang (2016), pp. 143–.
- ^ Wills (1994), p. 225.
- ^ Croizier (1977), p. 20.
- ^ a b Croizier (1977).
- ^ Croizier (1977), p. 11.
- ^ Wills (1994), p. 222.
- ^ Croizier (1977), p. 47.
- ^ Croizier (1977), p. 48.
- ^ Posonby Fane, R A B (1937). "Koxinga: Chronicles of the Tei Family, Loyal Servants of the Ming". Transactions of the Japan Society of London. 34: 79.
- ^ Croizier (1977), p. 13.
- ^ Struve (1993), p. 180.
- ^ Xing Hang (2016), pp. 239–.
- ^ Xing Hang (2016), pp. 233–.
- ^ "詩人鄭愁予:我是個抗戰兒童". 中國新聞網. 16 July 2015. Archived from the original on 15 May 2018.
- ISBN 978-90-04-16707-0.
- ^ "八旬诗人郑愁予 鼓浪屿聊诗歌". 北京晚报. 25 October 2016. Archived from the original on 20 May 2018.
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- ISBN 978-1-57075-450-0. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
- ^ Free China review, Volume 11. W.Y. Tsao. 1961. p. 54. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
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- ^ Andrade (2011), pp. 298–303.
- ^ "Ricci, Vittorio". encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
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- ^ Sino-Japanese Studies: Volumes 6–7. Sino-Japanese Studies Group. 1993. p. 28.
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- ^ "Tainan to build replica of Koxinga-era sailing junk". Taipei Times. 12 September 2007. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
There are several temples in Anping and Tainan dedicated to Koxinga and his mother.
- OCLC 182663920.
The Qinxi Tong is an example of a non-criminal fraternal organization. The original Qinxi group in Taiwan was made up of men who had been part of Koxinga's forces...affiliation with...the Hung Men...The Taiwanese Qinxi fraternal organization is still active, teaching martial arts and engaging in other activities.
- ^ Xing Hang (2016), p. 5.
- ISBN 978-1-136-82116-5.
- ^ Sino-Japanese Studies: Volumes 7–8. Sino-Japanese Studies Group. 1994. p. 24.
- ^ a b "How to remember Koxinga: Contested legacy". The Economist. 27 July 2012. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
- ^ a b Andrade, Tonio (25 May 2012). "Foreigners Under Fire". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
- ^ a b Wong Kwok Wah (14 March 2002). "One Hero, Two Interpretations". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Andrade (2011), Dramatis Personae.
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- ^ Mark Pollard (2001). "Sino-Dutch War 1661 (2001)". HK Flix.com. Archived from the original on 8 May 2002.
- ^ Winterton, Bradley (3 May 2018). "Book review: Imagining the exploits of Koxinga". Taipei Times. p. 14 (web page 1/2). Archived from the original on 24 November 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
- ^ 鄭成功 & アーチャー. gamecity.ne.jp (in Japanese). Retrieved 10 October 2023.
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