Mount Kinabalu
Mount Kinabalu | |
---|---|
Kadazan Dusun) | |
Geography | |
Location | Ranau, West Coast Division, Sabah, Malaysia |
Parent range | Crocker Mountains |
Climbing | |
First ascent | March 1851 Hugh Low (summit plateau) 1888 John Whitehead (highest peak) |
Easiest route | Hiking |
Mount Kinabalu (Malay: Gunung Kinabalu, Dusun: Gayo Ngaran or Nulu Nabalu) is the highest mountain in Borneo and Malaysia. With an elevation of 4,095 metres (13,435 ft), it is the third-highest peak of an island on Earth, the 28th highest peak in Southeast Asia, and 20th most prominent mountain in the world. The mountain is located in Ranau district, West Coast Division of Sabah, Malaysia. It is protected as Kinabalu Park, a World Heritage Site.
In 1997, a re-survey using satellite technology established its summit (known as Low's Peak) height at 4,095 m (13,435 ft) above sea level, which is some 6 m (20 ft) less than the previously thought and hitherto published figure of 4,101 m (13,455 ft).[1]
The mountain and its surroundings are among the most important biological sites in the world, with between 5,000 and 6,000 species of plants, 326 species of birds, and more than 100 mammalian species identified. Among this rich collection of wildlife are famous species such as the gigantic Rafflesia plants and orangutans. Mount Kinabalu has been accorded UNESCO World Heritage status.[2][3][4]
Low's Peak can be climbed by a person in good physical condition and there is no need for mountaineering equipment at any point on the main route, but climbers must be accompanied by accredited guides at all times due to national park regulations and may experience altitude sickness.[5]
Geology
Mount Kinabalu is essentially a massive
The present landform is considered to be a mid-Pliocene peneplain, arched and deeply dissected, through which the Kinabalu granodiorite body has risen in isostatic adjustment. It is still pushing up at the rate of 5 mm (0.20 in) per annum. During the Pleistocene Epoch of about 100,000 years ago, the massive mountain was covered by huge sheets of ice and glaciers which flowed down its slopes, scouring its surface in the process and creating the 1,800 m (5,906 ft) deep Low's Gully (named after Hugh Low) on its north side. Its granitic composition and the glacial formative processes are readily apparent when viewing its craggy rocky peaks.[1]
IUGS geological heritage site
In respect of it being 'one of the youngest granitic intrusions exposed on Earth and the site of spectacular tropical glacial landscapes', the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included the 'Mount Kinabalu Neogene granite' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.'[6]
Climate
The climate of the mountain varies from humid tropical at its base to alpine at its summit.[7] The temperature at the summit of Mount Kinabalu usually stands from −4 to 8 °C (25 to 46 °F) from December to January, and 3 to 12 °C (37 to 54 °F) from June to September. Due to the coldness of the mountain from December to January, there are a few occasions where frost and ice appear at the summit of Mount Kinabalu.[8][9][10] Snow has been recorded three times in this area; in 1975, 1993 and 2022.[11]
Biology
Mount Kinabalu along with other upland areas of the
In 2015, a major Malaysian-Dutch study showed that the unique flora, fauna, and fungi on the mountain summit are younger than the mountain itself, and have evolved from both local and distant montane ancestors.[18]
Flora
The flora of the mountain varies with elevation and geology.
Montane rain forest, also known as cloud forest, extends from approximately 1400 metres elevation up to 2900 metres. Montane forest typically has a closed canopy with single stratum, and the canopy height generally decreases with elevation. Typical trees include species of the plant families Fagaceae and Lauraceae, with conifers increasingly abundant at higher elevations. The lower montane forests have a high diversity of orchid and fern species. Carnivorous plants, including species of Nepenthes, Drosera, and Utricularia, are most diverse between 2200 and 2550 meters elevation, in areas with high rainfall and a stunted, open tree canopy. The montane forests are interspersed with areas of graminoid scrub, generally associated with hypermagnesic cambisol soils.[19]
Sub-alpine scrub extends from 2,600 to 3,200 m (8,530 to 10,499 ft). It includes short trees and shrubs such the conifer Dacrydium gibbsiae, Leptospermum recurvum, and species from the plant families Myrtaceae and Ericaceae,[19] along with dwarf shrubs, mosses, lichens, liverworts, and ferns. Orchids are abundant and diverse in subalpine and alpine plant communities, except for at the highest summits. Above 3,500 meters conditions are too extreme for trees, and above 3,700 meters persistent ground frost limits plants to the hardiest grasses, sedges and dwarf shrubs, including Leptospermum recurvatum and Rhododendron ericoides, which grow in crevices and other sheltered areas on the rocky summits.[20]
The plants of Mount Kinabalu have high levels of
Mount Kinabalu's above-average biodiversity in plant life is due to a combination of several unique factors: its setting in one of the richest plant regions of the world (the tropical biogeographical region known as western
The ultramafic rocks which make up parts of the mountain create soils rich in certain metallic elements (nickel, cobalt, chromium, and manganese), high
Fauna
The variety of plant life is also habitat for a great variety of birds and mammals.
Endemic annelids number less than a dozen known species but include the Kinabalu giant red leech that preys on various earthworms, including the Kinabalu giant earthworm.[24] In the summit zone, at least 26 endemic species of land snail exist.[25] In 2012, a major scientific expedition, jointly organised by the Malaysian Sabah Parks and the Dutch Naturalis Biodiversity Center, performed DNA analysis of several dozen endemic flora, fauna, and fungi, to understand the evolutionary origin of the unique biodiversity of Kinabalu.[26]
Threats and preservation
The steep mountainsides with poor soil are not suitable for farming or for the timber industry so the habitats and animal life of Kinabalu remain largely intact, with about a third of the original habitat now degraded. Kinabalu Park was established in 1964 and the nearby mountains were protected as the Crocker Range National Park in 1984. However even national park status does not guarantee full protection, as logging permits were granted on Trus Madi in 1984.[27] Climate Change is likely to reduce the suitable habitat for cold-adapted species from the montane habitats.[17]
History
British colonial administrator
Botanist
2015 earthquake
On 5 June 2015 at 07:15
Six days before the earthquake, around ten western tourists (comprising six men and four women from Canada, Germany, Netherlands and the United Kingdom)[31] "stripped and urinated at the mountain (which locals believe has angered the spirit at the sacred place)".[32] The tourists also allegedly shouted vulgarities when they were told to desist by their mountain guide,[33][34] but this was later dismissed by the judge in their trial.[citation needed] This provoked outrage among certain Sabahans, who want all of the alleged offenders charged in native court and forced to pay the "sogit", a type of compensation, given in the form of money or livestock, to appease the aggrieved party according to local Kadazan-Dusun customs. It is imposed on wrongdoers for the purpose of appeasing "the aggrieved", thus placating the community.[35] However, as most of the detained tourists have been released from Malaysia's prison and escaping native court, the local villagers had to perform their own rituals.[36] Following the incident, some of the tourists and their families have expressed their apologies to all involved parties, and the government of the United Kingdom began to review its travel advice for Malaysia.[37][38]
Climbing the mountain
Climbers must be accompanied by accredited guides at all times due to national park regulations. There are two main starting points for the climb: the Timpohon Gate (located 5.5 km (3.4 mi) from Kinabalu Park Headquarters, at an altitude of 1,866 m (6,122 ft)),
Sabah Parks grants a summit-climbing permit only to climbers who stay at mountain huts. Due to the limited number of beds at the mountain huts, only 130 people are allowed to climb Mount Kinabalu per day.
Accommodation is available inside the park or outside near the headquarters. Sabah Parks has privatised Mount Kinabalu activities to an organisation called Sutera Sanctuary Lodges. The mountain may be climbed on a single day trip, or hikers may (usually) stay one night at Laban Rata Resthouse at 3,270 m (10,730 ft) to complete the climb in 2 days, finishing the ascent and descending on the second day. The majority of climbers begin the ascent on day one of a two-day hike from Timpohon gate at 1,866 m (6,122 ft), reaching this location either by minibus or by walking, and then walk to Laban Rata. Most people accomplish this part of the climb in 3 to 6 hours. Since there are no roads, the supplies for the Laban Rata Resthouse are carried by porters, who sometimes bring more than 35 kg (77 lb) of supplies on their backs. Hot food and beverages are available at Laban Rata. Most rooms have no hot water in the bathrooms and whilst the dining area is heated, most rooms are not. The last 2 km (6,600 ft), from the Laban Rata Resthouse at 3,270 m (10,730 ft) to Low's Peak (summit) at 4,095.2 m (13,436 ft), takes between 2 and 4 hours. The last part of the climb is on bare granite rock.
Given the high altitude, some people may suffer from altitude sickness[40] although staying overnight at the lodges before the climb and climbing at a lower rate of ascent may reduce the likelihood of this happening.
Low's Gully
Low's Gully (named after Hugh Low who first looked down into it in 1851) is a 1,800 m (5,906 ft) deep gorge carved out by glaciation on the north side of Mount Kinabalu, which is exceptionally inhospitable due to its depth and high rainfall. In March 1994 two British Army officers were severely criticised after leading a party of 7 British and 3 Hong Kong soldiers in an attempt to abseil and climb down into the gully that required extensive rescue efforts from both the RAF and the Malaysian army. The party were not equipped with radios and the 2 officers and 3 Hong Kong soldiers were trapped for 16 days and did not eat for five days before being rescued when stretchers were lowered by helicopter. The breakaway party of five completed the first descent of the gully in three days.[41] A book about the 31-day fight for survival entitled Descent into Chaos was published in 1996 and a film drama The Place of the Dead was released in 1997. The first successful complete descent of Low's Gully was achieved by a 27 strong joint Malaysian-British team led by mountaineer and former British Army officer Pat Gunson in 1998.[42][43][44]
Naming myths
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Poor English, needs rewriting by fluent speaker. (December 2020) |
Several narratives exist that explain the primary beliefs surrounding the mountain's name.
The most plausible origin of the word "Kinabalu" is believed to be derived from the Dusun phrase 'Aki Nabalu,' signifying "the revered place of the dead" [citation needed] . Another possible interpretation attributes the name to the Dusun expression "tina balu," which translates to "a widow mother," suggesting that tina balu may represent the spirit of the mountain itself.[citation needed] Alternatively, some propose that "Kinabalu" results from the combination of two Dusun words, "ki" (have/has) and "nabalu" (mountain), forming "ki-nabalu" or "have mountain." It is a common practice among the Dusun people to name places based on their distinctive features or characteristics, exemplified by the place called "kiwaig," meaning "having water.[citation needed]
A popular story told to Western and Chinese tourists states that the name "Kinabalu" actually means "Cina Balu" (meaning "A Chinese Widow").[45] Due to the lingual influence among the Kadazan Dusun of Sabah, the pronunciation for the word "cina" (chee-na) was changed to "Kina" (kee-na).[46] An earlier book by Spenser St. John published in 1863 mentioned the Kina Balu (Chinese widow) as a reference to the mountain.[47] This story lacks coherence due to the likelihood that the Dusun people, who have lived in the area for approximately 6000 years, would not have been aware of the term "Cina" (Chinese in Malay) and thus could not have adapted it to "Kina" to refer to Chinese people or China. The Chinese language itself employs distinct words to represent Chinese individuals or the country of China, making the proposed adaptation very unlikely.
See also
- Borneo lowland rain forest– ecoregion
- Borneo montane rain forests – ecoregion
- Kinabalu Park
- Mount Kinabalu International Climbathon
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Phillipps, A. & F. Liew 2000. Globetrotter Visitor's Guide – Kinabalu Park. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd.
- ^ "Kinabalu Park". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 14 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ Michael Aquino. "Mount Kinabalu, Malaysia". About.com Travel. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "Mount Kinabalu – revered abode of the dead". Ecology Asia. Archived from the original on 21 September 2010. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-74104-887-2. Archivedfrom the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
- ^ "The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites" (PDF). IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage. IUGS. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
- ^ a b Beaman, J.H., Beaman, R.S. (1990). Diversity and distribution patterns in the flora of Mount Kinabalu. In: Baas, P., Kalkman, K., Geesink, R. (eds) The Plant Diversity of Malesia. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2107-8_14
- ^ "Did it snow on the summit of Mount Kinabalu?". The Star. 25 January 2014. Archived from the original on 10 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ Tang Ruxyn (10 February 2017). "Ice Sheets And 'Snow' Have Formed on Mount Kinabalu!". Says.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ "Gunung Kinabalu pernah diselebungi salji". /SBH. 12 February 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
- ^ "Does It Snow in Malaysia?". 31 May 2021.
- ^ Parris, By. S., R. S. Beaman, and J. H. Beaman. 1992. The Plants of Mount Kinabalu: 1. Ferns and Fern Allies. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. 165 pp + 5 pl.
- ^ Wood, J. J., J. H. Beaman, and R. S. Beaman. 1993. The Plants of Mount Kinabalu. 2. Orchids. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. xii + 411 pp + 84 pl.
- ^ Beaman, J. H., and R. S. Beaman. 1998. The Plants of Mount Kinabalu. 3. Gymnosperms and Non-Orchid Monocotyledons. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd.; Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. xii + 220 pp + 25 pl.
- ^ Beaman, J. H., C. Anderson, and R. S. Beaman. 2001. The plants of Mount Kinabalu. 4: Dicotyledon families Acanthaceae to Lythraceae. xiv + 570 pp + 45 pl. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd.; Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens.
- ^ Beaman, J. H., and C. Anderson. 2004. The plants of Mount Kinabalu. 5: Dicotyledon families Magnoliaceae to Winteraceae. xiv + 609 pp + 40 pl. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd.; Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens.
- ^ a b c Miguel Camacho-Sanchez, Irene Quintanilla, Melissa T. R. Hawkins, Fred Y. Y. Tuh, Konstans Wells, Jesus E. Maldonado and Jennifer A. Leonard. 2018. "Interglacial refugia on tropical mountains: novel insights from the summit rat (Rattus baluensis), a Borneo mountain endemic". Diversity and Distributions, 24: 1252–1266. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12761 Archived 2 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ a b c d van der Ent, A., Erskine, P., Mulligan, D., Repin, R., & Karim, R. (2016). Vegetation on ultramafic edaphic “islands” in Kinabalu Park (Sabah, Malaysia) in relation to soil chemistry and elevation. Plant and Soil, 403(1/2), 77–101. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43872634
- ^ a b Wikramanayake, Eric. Kinabalu Montane Alpine Meadows. One Earth. Accessed 5 March 2023.
- ^ Kurata, S. 1976. Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu. Sabah National Parks Publications No. 2, Sabah National Parks Trustees, Kota Kinabalu.
- ^ Adam, J.H.; Wilcock, C.C. (1998). "Pitcher plants of Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah". The Sarawak Museum Journal. 50 (71): 145–171.
- ^ Camacho-Sanchez M, Hawkins MTR, Tuh Yit Yu F, Maldonado JE, Leonard JA. 2019. Endemism and diversity of small mammals along two neighboring Bornean mountains. PeerJ 7:e7858 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7858 Archived 2 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ "Expedition investigates origin of unique species on Borneo". Press release. Naturalis Biodiversity Center. Archived from the original on 23 July 2015.
- ^ "Kinabalu montane alpine meadows". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.
- ^ Hiung, C. S., R. Mandalam, and C. Chin. 2004. The Hugh Low Trail: The Quest for the Historical Trail to the Summit of Kinabalu. The Sabah Society, Kota Kinabalu.
- ^ Kinabalu Park Archived 20 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine. UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
- ^ Victoria Brown (5 June 2015). "Sabah quake: Donkey's Ear Peak on Mount Kinabalu destroyed". The Star. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ Hannah Strange (10 June 2015). "British woman arrested in Malaysia over nude photos in Mount Kinabalu". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
- ^ Michelle Tam; Stephanie Lee (5 June 2015). "Sabah quake: Mount Kinabalu may be "angry" with nudists, say locals". The Star. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- The Malay Mail. Archivedfrom the original on 6 June 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
- ^ Natasha Joibi (8 June 2015). "Sabah quake: Nude tourists shouted vulgarities at mountain guide". The Star. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
- ^ "Sabahans want 10 foreign stripper tourists charged in native court". Daily Express. 10 June 2015. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
- ^ "Five villages perform own rituals: Chief After unable to impose 'sogit' on nudists". Daily Express. 20 June 2015. Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
- ^ Matthew Weaver; Beh Lih Yi (11 June 2015). "Mount Kinabalu 'naked prank': UK reviews advice for travellers to Malaysia". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 June 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
- ^ "Sask. siblings apologize for posing naked on Malaysia mountain". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 16 June 2015. Archived from the original on 15 September 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-691-16941-5.
- ^ Cymerman, A; Rock, PB. "Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers". USARIEM-TN94-2. US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.
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(help)CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Mary Braid (20 September 1994). "Leaders of lost expedition criticised". The Independent. Archived from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "Pat Wins His Battle With Low's Gully". The Westmorland Gazette. 1 January 2000. Archived from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
- ^ "British climbers prepare to tame Low's Gully". BBC News. 12 January 1998. Archived from the original on 22 October 2002. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
- ^ Kvinta, Paul (1 March 2003). "Big Gulp, No Exit". Outside. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
- ^ "The call of Malaysia's 'conquerable' Mount Kinabalu". BBC News. 5 June 2015. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ Alan Rogers (18 January 2015). "Majesty, mystery and magic of mountains". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 21 September 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ Sir Spenser St. John (1863). Life in the Forests of the Far East. Smith, Elder and Company. p. 327. Archived from the original on 2 December 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
Further reading
- Thomas Fuller (9 April 1999). Into the Mists of Borneo's Kinabalu Archived 2 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.
- Hugh; Midori Paxton (7 March 2001). Climb rain forests to the clouds Archived 8 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The Japan Times.
- Jim Solicki (23 June 2001). They came, they climbed: Mount Kinabalu conquered Archived 6 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The Globe and Mail.
- Jocasta Webb (1 September 2001). The truth about Mount Kinabalu Archived 27 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian
- Flip Byrnes (18 August 2010). Least-known, most exhilarating hikes Archived 2 December 2021 at the Stuff.co.nz
- Niall McIlroy (9 July 2011). Man versus mountain Archived 6 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The West Australian.
- Gabby Salazar (2 June 2014). Sunrise Hiking on Mount Kinabalu Archived 1 August 2017 at the National Geographic
- Sasha Gonzales (14 April 2015). 'If hell were a mountain, it would look like Mount Kinabalu': a Hong Kong hiker's Borneo blues Archived 2 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine. South China Morning Post
- Amy Willis (11 June 2015). What are the rules on climbing Mount Kinabalu and why is it so sacred? Archived 12 October 2017 at the Metro.
External links
- Mount Kinabalu travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Sabah Parks website
- List of climbers who have hiked Mount Kinabalu