Negev Bedouin
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The Negev Bedouin (
From 1858 during
Others settled outside these townships in what is called the
The Bedouin population in the Negev numbers 200,000–210,000. Just over half of them live in the seven government-built Bedouin-only towns; the remaining 90,000 live in 46 villages – 35 of which are still unrecognized and 11 of which were officially recognized in 2003.[2][15]
Characteristics
The Negev Bedouin are
The Negev Bedouin tribes have been divided into three classes, according to their origin: descendants of ancient Arabian nomads, descendants of some Sinai Bedouin tribes, and Palestinian peasants (
Counter to the image of the Bedouin as fierce stateless nomads roving the entire region, by the turn of the 20th century, much of the Bedouin population in Palestine was settled, semi-nomadic, and engaged in agriculture according to an intricate system of land ownership, grazing rights, and water access.[22][23]
Today, many Bedouin call themselves 'Negev Arabs' rather than 'Bedouin', explaining that 'Bedouin' identity is intimately tied in with a pastoral nomadic way of life – a way of life they say is over. Although the Bedouin in Israel continue to be perceived as nomads, today all of them are fully sedentarized, and about half are urbanites.[24]
Nevertheless, Negev Bedouin continue to possess sheep and goats: In 2000 the
History
Antiquity
Historically, the Bedouin engaged in nomadic herding, agriculture and sometimes fishing. They also earned income by transporting goods and people
The Bedouin established very few permanent settlements; however, some evidence remains of traditional baika buildings, seasonal dwellings for the rainy season when they would stop to engage in farming. Cemeteries known as "nawamis" dating to the late fourth millennium B.C. have been also found. Similarly, open-air mosques (without a roof) dating from the early Islamic period are common and still in use.[29] The Bedouin conducted extensive farming on plots scattered throughout the Negev.[30]
During the 6th century, Emperor
Islamic era
In the 7th century, the
Ottoman Empire
Most of the Negev Bedouin tribes migrated to the Negev from the Arabian Desert, Transjordan, Egypt, and the Sinai from the 18th century onwards.
Bedouin
At the end of the 19th century
Another measure initiated by the Ottoman authorities was the private acquisition of large plots of state land offered by the sultan to the absentee landowners (effendis). Numerous tenants were brought in order to cultivate the newly acquired lands.
And the main trend of settling non-Bedouin population in the Palestine remained until the last days of the empire. By the 20th century much of the Bedouin population was settled, semi-nomadic, and engaged in agriculture according to an intricate system of land ownership, grazing rights, and water access.[35][failed verification]
During
British Mandate
The British Mandate in Palestine brought order to the Negev; however, this order was accompanied by losses in sources of income and poverty among the Bedouin. The Bedouin nevertheless retained their lifestyle, and a 1927 report describes them as the "untamed denizens of the Arabian deserts."[27] The British also established the first formal schools for the Bedouin.[19]
The Negev Bedouin have been described as remaining largely unaffected by changes in the outside world until recently. Their society was often considered a "world without time."[11] Recent scholars have challenged the notion of the Bedouin as 'fossilized,' or 'stagnant' reflections of an unchanging desert culture. Emanuel Marx has shown that Bedouin were engaged in a constantly dynamic reciprocal relation with urban centers[37] and Michael Meeker, a cultural anthropologist, states that "the city was to be found in their midst."[38]
The British Mandate authorities, laws and bureaucracy favored settled groups above pastoral nomads and they found it hard to fit in the Negev Bedouin into their system of governance, thus the Mandate's policy regarding the Bedouin tribes of Palestine was often of an ad hoc nature.[22]
But eventually, as had happened with the Ottoman authorities, the British turned to coercion. Several regulations were issued, such as the Bedouin Control Ordinance (1942), meant to provide the administration with "special powers of control of nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes with the object of persuading them towards a more settled way of life". The ample powers of the Ordinance empowered the District Commissioner to direct the Bedouin "to go to, or not go to, or to remain in any specified area".[22]
Mandatory land policies created legal and demographic pressures for sedentarization, and by the end of the British Mandate the majority of the Bedouin were settled. They built some 60 new villages and dispersed settlements, populated by 27,500 people in 1945, according to the Mandate authorities.[22] The only exception were the Negev Bedouin who remained semi-nomadic.[citation needed]
Prior to the founding of Israel, the Negev's population consisted almost entirely of 110,000 Bedouin.[39]
Compared to rural Arabs Bedouins were more willing to accept and sell land to Jews but outbreaks of violence and having different views on land ownership created a complicated relationship. The Bedouins expected payment for land , and labour as well as the development of water sources in the region and to learn science and technology from the Jews. The relations also varied between tribal groups with tense relations between Jews and the Azazma around Bir Asluj and Revivim compared to warm relations with the Tarabin in western Negev. In addition to payments in exchange for the purchase of lands and of salaries to field guards, Bedouin sheikhs were paid protection money, a part of which was paid in water. Initially Jews relied on well water from the Bedouins but later the settlers began drilling for water which impressed Bedouins who offered water to Jewish settlements expecting more water from Jews in the future. In return some Jewish settlements such as Revivim constructed special taps for travelling Bedouins. [40]
In 1932 Mufti Haj Amin el Husseini visited Wadi al-Shariya and was hosted by Sheikh Ibrahim el-Sana who with other sheikhs agreed to counter Negev from the Zionist settlement. They agreed to stop selling land to Jews and to consider those that do as outcasts. However the implementation of the agreement was varied across groups with some ignoring it.[40]
By 1947 Jews had begun building pipelines in cooperation with Arabs and Bedouin villages who were promised their own taps. However this also increased conflict between Jews and hostile Bedouin tribes who damaged the pipelines. On 9 December 1947 a platoon of Jewish guards from Palmach encountered a Bedouin camp near kibbutz Mivtachim and violence ensued and was followed by several incidents of violence between Jewish patrols and Bedouins.[40]
1948 Palestine war
During the 1948 Palestine war, Negev Bedouin supported both Jewish and Arab sides of the conflict.[41] Some Bedouin groups aided Jewish populations against the Palestinian National Movement and Arab armies, particularly after the United Nation's Partition Plan of 1947. Conversely, other Bedouin groups aligned with the Palestinian National Movement fighting against the Jewish population. This period saw the formation of fighting Bedouin societies that participated in conflicts throughout the country, including the Galilee region, with Bedouin tribes fighting on both sides.[40] In the Galilee, most Bedouins identified with the Arab population, however, there were also Bedouins who had defended Jewish security before the establishment of the State of Israel often risking their lives and property by aligning with the Jewish fighters.[40] The first Bedouin tribe to align themselves to help the Jews was Arab-al-Hib and later became the tracker unit in the Israel Defence Forces.[40]
After the war, Bedouins that were neutral or fought with the Zionist forces remained in the State of Israel, while others who were aligned to the Arab Liberation Army were forced to leave.
During the 1948 Arab–Israeli war, Nahum Sarig, the Palmach commander in the Negev, instructed his officers that "Our job is to appear before the Arabs as a ruling force which functions forcefully but with justice and fairness." The stated provisions included: that they avoid harming women, children and friendly Arabs, that shepherds grazing on Jewish land should be driven off by gun-fire, that searches of Arab settlements be conducted "politely but firmly" and that "you are permitted to execute any man found in possession of a weapon".[47]
Prior to 1948, it is estimated that there were between 65,000 to 90,000 Bedouin in the Negev, after the war this number decreased to 11,000.[45]
Bedouin refugees in Jordan
Due to destabilizing tribal wars from 1780 to 1890 many Negev Bedouins tribes were forced to move to southern Jordan, Sinai peninsula. After the tribal war of 1890, tribal land boundaries remained fixed until the 1948 war, by which time the Beduin of the Negev numbered approximately 110,000, and were organized into 95 tribes and clans.[48]
When Beersheba was occupied by the Israeli army in 1948, 90% of the Bedouin population of the Negev were forced to leave, expectating to return to their lands after the war – mainly to Jordan and Sinai peninsula.[49] Of the approximately 110,000 Bedouin who lived in the Negev before the war about 11,000 remained.[45]
Israel
The first Israeli government headed by
The Bedouin who remained in the Negev belonged to the
In 1951, the United Nations reported the deportation of about 7,000 Negev Bedouin to Jordan, the Gaza Strip and Sinai, but many returned undetected.[53] The new government failed to issue the Bedouin identity cards until 1952 and deported thousands of Bedouin who remained within the new borders.[54] Deportation continued into the late 1950s, as reported by the Haaretz newspaper in 1959: "The army's desert patrols would turn up in the midst of a Bedouin encampment day after day, dispersing it with a sudden burst of machine-gun fire until the sons of the desert were broken and, gathering what little was left of their belongings, led their camels in long silent strings into the heart of the Sinai desert."[24]
Land ownership issues
Israel's land policy was adapted to a large extent from the Ottoman land regulations of 1858. According to the 1858 Ottoman Land Law, lands that were not registered as of private ownership, were considered state lands. However, Bedouins were not motivated to register lands they lived on, because land ownership meant additional responsibilities for them, including taxation and military duty, and it created a new problem since they found it hard to prove their ownership rights. Israel relied mainly on Tabu recordings. Most of the Bedouin land fell under the Ottoman class of 'non-workable' (mawat) land and thus belonged to the state under Ottoman law. Israel nationalized most of the Negev lands, using The Land Rights Settlement Ordinance passed in 1969.[11][55]
Israel's policies regarding the Negev Bedouin at first included regulation and relocation. During the 1950s Israel has re-located two-thirds of the Negev Bedouins into an area that was under a martial law.[
At the same time Bedouin herding was restricted by land expropriation.
Despite state hegemony over the Negev, the Bedouin regarded 600,000
IDF Chief Moshe Dayan was in favor of transfer the Bedouin to the center of the country in order to eliminate land claims and create a cadre of urban laborers.[50] In 1963, he told Haaretz:[57]
"We should transform the Bedouin into an urban proletariat—in industry, services, construction, and agriculture. 88% of the Israeli population are not farmers, let the Bedouin be like them. Indeed, this will be a radical move which means that the Bedouin would not live on his land with his herds, but would become an urban person who comes home in the afternoon and puts his slippers on. His children will get used to a father who wears pants, without a dagger, and who does not pick out their nits in public. They will go to school, their hair combed and parted. This will be a revolution, but it can be achieved in two generations. Without coercion but with governmental direction ... this phenomenon of the Bedouins will disappear."
Ben-Gurion supported this idea, but the Bedouin strongly opposed. Later, the proposal was withdrawn.
IDF commander Yigal Allon proposed to concentrate the Bedouin in some large townships within the Siyag. This proposal resembled an earlier IDF plan, which intended to secure land suitable for settling Jews and setting up IDF bases as well as to remove the Bedouin from key Negev routes.[50]
Israeli-built townships
Between 1968 and 1989 the state established urban townships for housing of deported Bedouin tribes and promised Bedouin services in exchange for the renunciation of their ancestral land.[50]
Within a few years, half of the Bedouin population moved into the seven townships built for them by the Israeli government.
The largest Bedouin locality in Israel is the city of
Most of those who moved into these townships were the Bedouin with no recognized land claims, although the overwhelming majority of historic land claims had been left unrecognized by the Israeli government.[60]
According to Ben Gurion University's Negev Center for Regional Development, the towns were built without an urban policy framework, business districts or industrial zones;[61] as Harvey Lithwick of the Negev Center for Regional Development explains: "The major failure was a lack of an economic rationale for the towns."[62] According to Lithwick, and Ismael and Kathleen Abu Saad of Ben Gurion University, the towns quickly became among the most deprived towns in Israel, severely lacking in services such as public transport and banks.[19] The urban townships were plagued by endemic joblessness and resulting cycles of crime and drug trafficking.[61]
The Bedouin of
According to a State Comptroller report from 2002, the Bedouin townships were built with minimal investment, and infrastructure in the seven townships had not improved much in the span of three decades. In 2002, most homes were not connected to the sewage system, the water supply was erratic and the roads were not adequate.[64] Lessons were learned and new policies have been implemented since then, with the Israeli government allocating special funds to improve the wellbeing of the Negev Bedouin.
In 2008, a railway station opened near the largest Bedouin town in the Negev,
Unrecognized villages
Those Bedouin who resisted sedentarization and urban life remained in their villages. In 2007, 39-45 villages were not recognized by the state and were thus ineligible for municipal services such as connection to the electrical grid, water mains or trash-pickup.[60]
According to a 2007 report of the
Today, several unrecognized villages are in the process of recognition. They have been incorporated into the Abu Basma Regional Council created for the purpose of dealing with specific problems of the Bedouin. So far they remain without water, electricity and garbage services, although there is a certain improvement: for example, in al-Sayyid two new schools were built and a medical clinic has been opened since its recognition in 2004. Development has been hampered by urban planning difficulties and land ownership problems.[70] Due to the lack of municipal waste services and trash pickup, backyard burning has been adopted on a large scale, impacting badly on public health and the environment.[71]
Negev Bedouin claim the ownership of land totaling some 600,000
On September 29, 2003, the government adopted the new "Abu Basma Plan" (Resolution 881), calling for a new regional council to unify unrecognized Bedouin settlements, the
In 2012, 13 Bedouin towns and cities were being built or expanded.[65] Several new industrial zones are planned, such as Idan HaNegev on the suburbs of Rahat.[77] It will have a hospital and a new campus inside.[78]
Prawer Plan
In September 2011, the Israeli government approved a five-year
The plan is based on a proposal developed by a team headed by Ehud Prawer, the head of policy planning in the Prime Minister's Office (
According to the Israeli Prime Ministers Office, the plan is based on four main principles:
- Providing for the status of Bedouin communities in the Negev;
- Economic development for the Negev's Bedouin population;
- Resolving claims over land ownership; and
- Establishing a mechanism for binding, implementation and enforcement, as well as timetables.[79]
The plan was described as part of a campaign to develop the Negev; bring about better integration of Bedouin in Israeli society, and significantly reduce the economic and social gaps between the Bedouin population in the Negev and Israeli society.[79]
The cabinet also approved a NIS 1.2 billion economic development program for Bedouin Negev whose main purpose is to promote employment among Bedouin women and youth. Funding was allocated to the development of
According to the Prawer Plan, Bedouin communities will be expanded, some unrecognized communities will be recognized and receive
The Prawer Plan seeks to address the numerous land claims filed by the Bedouin, offering what the Israeli government states is "significant" compensation in land and funds, with each claim dealt with in a "unified and transparent way".[79]
The proposed solution will be put into binding legislation—the Israeli Knesset will work out and accept appropriate legislation in the fall of 2012. Accordingly, the state will reorganize and strengthen the enforcement mechanism. A team headed by minister Benny Begin and Maj.-Gen. (ret.) Doron Almog is responsible for the implementation of this plan.[needs update]
Critics say the Prawer Plan will turn Bedouin dispossession into law[84][85] and come to a conclusion that relocation of the Bedouin will be compelled. Some even speak about ethnic cleansing.[86] Several members of the European Parliament have heavily criticized the plan.[87]
There are several examples of how the Prawer Plan has been implemented so far (As of June 2013[update]): after a number of complicated discreet agreements with the state all of the Bedouin of
In December 2013, the Israeli government shelved the plan to forcibly relocate about 40,000 Bedouin Arabs from their ancestral lands to government designated towns. One of the plan's architects stated that the Bedouin had neither been consulted nor agreed to the move. "I didn't tell anyone that the Bedouin agreed to my plan. I couldn't say that because I didn't present the plan to them," said the former minister Benny Begin.
The Association of Civil Rights in Israel stated that "the government now has an opportunity to conduct real and honest dialogue with the Negev Bedouin community and its representatives". The Negev Bedouin seek a solution to the problem of the unrecognised villages, and a future in Israel as citizens with equal rights."[88]
Resolution 3708
In September 2011, the government of Israel passed Resolution 3708, concerning the program to promote economic growth and development for the Bedouin population in the Negev. The Bureau for the Settlement and Economic Development of the Bedouin Sector in the Negev, which was at the time in the Prime Minister's Office, was given responsibility for supervising and monitoring the implementation of the development program.
Following government Resolution 1146 of January 5, 2014, responsibility for socioeconomic development and the status of Bedouin settlement in the Negev was transferred to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) and a program to integrate the Bedouin population in the Negev was initiated by the Planning Authority, which is the funding agency for monitoring and supervising implementation of the development program.
Resolution 3708 presented a five-year plan for 2012–2016 with goals of promoting the economic status of the Bedouin population in the Negev, strengthening Bedouin local authorities, and strengthening the social life, communities and leadership in the Bedouin population.
In order to achieve these goals, it was decided to focus investment on women and young adults, particularly in the areas of employment and education. The resolution addressed the following five areas:
- Raising the employment rate of the Bedouin population in the Negev, diversifying the places of employment, and increasing the integration of the Bedouin in employment in the Israeli economy
- Developing infrastructures, particularly those that support employment, education, and society
- Strengthening personal security
- Promoting education among the Bedouin in the Negev in order to increase their participation in the labor market
- Strengthening and developing social life within the community and leadership in the villages, and expanding social services.
Several ministries were involved in implementation of the resolution: Economy, Education, Social Affairs and Services (MOSAS), MARD, Interior, Public Security, Defense (Security-Social Division), Transport and Road Safety, Culture and Sport, Development of the Negev and the Galilee, and Health.
The total budget for implementation of the resolution was NIS 1.2633 billion, of which 68% was a supplementary sum (not taken from the budgets of the ministries).
Clause 11 of Resolution 3708 stipulated that the program should be examined by an evaluation study. MARD commissioned the Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute to examine the implementation of the resolution and its outcomes over a 3-year period. The study focused on four core areas that were important to the development and advancement of the Bedouin population and that represented 77% of the total budget allocated for the resolution (employment, social infrastructures, personal security, and education,
Following two interim reports,[89][90] a final evaluation was released in 2018.[91] Among the findings were the following:
- Establishing Riyan Employment Centers. The Riyan Centers provide participants with vocational guidance, professional training and job placement, and are situated in the communities themselves to take advantage of local resources. Prior to Resolution 3708, the centers operated in two only localities. With the implementation, they were distributed throughout all Bedouin local authorities and reached almost 10,000 people. About 50% of the men and 30% of the women were placed in jobs within a year of joining.[92]
- Practical Engineering Studies for Adults. Prior to the Resolution, Bedouin students in the Shiluv Program studied in separate college classes. Following the Resolution, the study model was changed, with students integrated into regular college classes and also receiving financial and personal support. As of 2017, 305 students had entered the engineering track, a quarter of whom were women.[93]
- Improved Access to Transportation. Since the Resolution, the number of inter-city trips increased by 94%, and of intra-city trips, by 43%.[93]
- Centers of Excellence. The Centers of Excellence are offer a weekly after-school program for students in grades 3–6, with a compulsory course in science and technology and an elective in a choice of subjects. Six centers became operative under the Resolution and, in 2017, served some 900 students.[94]
Healthcare
The Bedouin benefited from the introduction of modern health care in the region.
The Bedouin infant mortality rate is still the highest in Israel, and one of the highest in the developed world. In 2010, the mortality rate of Bedouin babies rose to 13.6 per 1,000, compared to 4.1 per 1,000 in Jewish communities in the south. According to the
60% of Bedouin men smoke. Among the Bedouin, as of 2003, 7.3% of females and 9.9% of males have
The Centre for Women's Health Studies and Promotion notes that in the unrecognised Bedouin villages in the Negev, very few health care facilities are available; ambulances do not serve the villages and 38 villages have no medical services.
In urban townships, access to water is also an issue: an article from the World Zionist Organization Hagshama Department explains that water allocation to Bedouin towns is 25-50% of that to Jewish towns.[95] Since the State has not built water infrastructure in the unrecognized villages, residents must buy water and store it in large tanks where fungi, bacteria and rust develop very quickly in the plastic containers or metal tanks under conditions of extreme heat; this has led to numerous infections and skin diseases.[100]
Education
In the 1950s, mandatory schooling was extended to the Bedouin sector, leading to a massive increase in
Drop-out rates were once very high among Negev Bedouin. In 1998 only 43 percent of Bedouin youngsters reached the 12th grade.[64] Enforcement of mandatory education for the Bedouin was weak, particularly in the case of young girls. According to a 2001 study by the Centre for Women's Health Studies and Promotion more than 75% of Bedouin women had never been to or completed elementary school.[99] This was due to a combination of internal Bedouin traditional attitudes towards women, lack of government enforcement of the Mandatory Education Law and insufficient budgets for Bedouin schools.[99]
However, the number of Bedouin students in Israel is on the rise. Arabic summer schools are being developed.
According to data released by the Knesset Research and Information Center in July 2012, at least 800 young Bedouins from the Negev (out of overall 1300 Israeli students studying in PA) opted for universities in the Palestinian Authority, mainly Hebron and Jenin, preferring Muslim studies (Sharia) and education.[106] It's a relatively new phenomenon, occurring in the past year or two and its main reasons are relatively difficult psychometric exams hampering to be accepted into Israeli universities and colleges (in PA there is no such a requirement), absence of Muslim studies subject in them and a language barrier.[107]
In fall 2011 Ben-Gurion University of the Negev has revived a special program preparing Bedouins to fill a dire need in school psychologists in their communities' schools due to a host of issues particular to this population, from aged-old inter-clan rivalries to the emotional fallout from polygamy. This program is leading to a master's degree in educational psychology for Arab-Israeli and Bedouin students. Program's leaders admit that only a professional from within the society can fully understand the intricacies of its unique situations.[108]
Additionally, a new Harvard University campus will be established in Rahat inside Idan HaNegev industrial zone in the coming years. It will be the first campus built in this Bedouin city.[109] Ben-Gurion University of the Negev will oversee the new campus' operations, and it will be considered a BGU branch.
A few years ago the Association of Academics for the Development of Arab Society in the Negev (AHD) has established a new science high school at the Shoket Junction. This school hosts some 380 students in grades nine through twelve from Bedouin Arab towns and villages. First students graduated it in the spring of 2012.[110]
Women's status
According to a range of studies, including a 2001 study by the Centre for Women's Health Studies and Promotion at
There were reports that some Bedouin tribes had previously conducted female genital mutilation. However, this practice was considered far less severe than what is carried out in some places in Africa, consisting of a "small" cut. The practice was carried out independently by women, and men didn't play a part and in most cases were unaware of the practice. However, by 2009 the practice seemed to have disappeared. Researchers are unclear as to how it disappeared (the Israeli government was not involved) but suggest modernisation as the probable cause.[112]
Economy
Traditionally given over to shepherding their flocks and foraging for
Data collected by the
As of 2012, 81 percent of Bedouin women of working age were unemployed.[115] Nevertheless, a growing number of women have begun to join the work force.[116]
Several
Crime
The crime rate in the Bedouin sector in the Negev is among the highest in the country.[118] To that end, a special police unit, codenamed Blimat Herum (lit. emergency halt), consisting of about 100 regular policemen, was founded in 2003 to fight crime in the sector. The Southern District of the Israel Police cited the rising crime rate in the sector as the reason for the unit's inauguration. The unit was founded after a period of time when regular police units conducted raids on Bedouin settlements to stop theft (especially car theft) and drug dealing.[119] In 2004 a new police station was opened in Rahat, it has around 70 staff policemen.
Environmental issues
In 1979, a 1,500 square kilometer area in the Negev was declared a protected nature reserve, rendering it out of bounds for Bedouin herders. In conjunction with this move the Green Patrol, a law compliance unit was established that disbanded 900 Bedouin encampments and cut goat herds by more than a third. With the black goat nearly extinct, black goat hair to weave tents is hard to come by.[120]
Israeli environmental leader Alon Tal claims Bedouin construction is among the top ten environmental hazards in Israel.[121] In 2008, he wrote that the Bedouin are taking up open spaces that should be used for park land.[122] In 2007, Bustan organization disagreed with this contention: "Regarding rural Bedouin land use as a threat to open spaces fails to take into account the fact that Bedouin occupy little more than 1% of the Negev and fails to call into question the IDF's hegemony over more than 85% of the Negev's open spaces."[58] Gideon Kressel has proposed a brand of pastoralism that preserves open spaces for rangeland herding.[123]
Demographics
The Bedouin comprise the youngest population in Israeli society - about 54 percent of the Bedouin population was younger than 14 in 2002.[64] With an annual growth rate of 5.5% that same year,[64] which is one of the highest in the world, the Bedouin in Israel were doubling their population every 15 years.[65] Bedouin advocates argue that the main reason for the transfer of the Bedouin into townships against their will is demographic.[126] In 2003, Director of the Israeli Population Administration Department, Herzl Gedj,[127] described polygamy in the Bedouin sector a "security threat" and advocated various means of reducing the Arab birth rate.[128] In 2004, Ronald Lauder of the Jewish National Fund, announced plans to increase the number of Jews in the Negev by 250,000 in five years and 500,000 in ten years into the Negev through the Blueprint Negev,[129] incurring opposition from Bedouin rights groups concerned that the unrecognized villages might be cleared to make way for Jewish-only development and potentially ignite internal civil strife.[130]
In 1999, 110,000 Bedouin lived in the Negev, 50,000 in the Galilee and 10,000 in the central region of Israel.[131] As of 2013, the Bedouin population in the Negev numbered 200,000-210,000.[1][2][3]
Identity and culture
The Bedouin consider themselves Arabs with their origin being modern Saudi Arabia. The Bedouins are seen as Arab culture's purest representatives, "ideal" Arabs, but they are distinct from other Arabs because of their extensive kinship networks, which provide them with community support and the basic necessities for survival.
The Negev Bedouin have been compared to the American Indians in terms of how they have been treated by the dominant cultures.[11] The Regional Council of Unrecognized Villages describes the Negev Bedouin as an "indigenous" population.[132] However, some researchers contest this view.[133]
The Bedouin have their own authentic and distinct culture, rich oral poetic tradition, honor code and a code of laws. Despite the problem of illiteracy, the Bedouin attribute importance to natural events and ancestral traditions.[134] The Bedouin of Arabia were the first converts to Islam, and it is an important part of their identity today.[5]
Their outfit is also different from that of other Arabs, since the men wear long 'jellabiya' and a 'smagg' (red white draped headcover) or 'aymemma' (white headcover) or a white small headdress, sometimes held in place by an 'agall' (a black cord). Bedouin women usually wear brightly coloured long dresses but outside they wear 'abaya' (a thin, long black coat sometimes covered with shiny embroidery) and they will always cover their head and hair with a 'tarha' (a black, thin shawl) when they leave their house.[135]
Traditional skill-crafts
The Bedouin women of the Negev were once renowned for their skills in making black, goat-hair matted tent flaps for constructing tents (known locally as bayt al-shar), but this practice is now nearly lost and found almost exclusively among Bedouins in Jordan. Still, the Bedouins of the Negev have maintained and passed down certain skill crafts, such as basketry and weaving rope with a plant fiber known to them as mitnān, or what is called in English "shaggy sparrow-wort" (Thymelaea hirsuta),[136] and dyeing wool with a yellow dye extracted from the stalks and roots of the Desert broomrape (Cistanche tubulosa), a plant known locally by the name dhunūn and halūq.[137]
Bedouins of the Negev and Sinai have traditionally made use of the solidified resin extracted from the seeds of the ban tree (Moringa peregrina) to treat (rosin) the strings of the Arab violin (rebābah).[138]
Glue was made from the siyāl tree (
Relationship with Israel
Many Bedouin serve as trackers in the IDF's elite tracking units, tasked with securing the border from infiltration.[139] Amos Yarkoni, first commander of the Shaked Reconnaissance Battalion in the Givati Brigade, was a Bedouin (born Abd el-Majid Hidr), although not from the Negev.
The circulated number of Bedouin of draft age volunteering for the
A 2001 poll suggests that Bedouin feel more estranged from the state than do Arabs in the north. A Jewish Telegraphic Agency article reports that, "forty-two percent said they reject Israel's right to exist, compared with 16 percent in the non-Bedouin Arab sector."[64] But a 2004 study found that Negev Bedouins tend to identify more as Israelis than other Arab citizens of Israel.[145]
I am a proud Israeli – along with many other non-Jewish Israelis such as Druze,
Baháʼí, Bedouin, Christians and Muslims, who live in one of the most culturally diversified societies and the only true democracy in the Middle East. Like America, Israeli society is far from perfect, but let us deals honestly. By any yardstick you choose—educational opportunity, economic development, women and gays' rights, freedom of speech and assembly, legislative representation—Israel's minorities fare far better than any other country in the Middle East.[147]
During the October 7 Hamas attack on Israel
The 7 October, 2023 attack by Hamas on southern Israel significantly impacted the Negev Bedouins, both in terms of casualties and the broader implications for the community. During these attacks, at least 21 Bedouins were killed, and six taken hostage by Hamas, with casualties occurring both in the initial onslaught and subsequent rocket fire from Gaza. The victims included both civilians and Bedouin members of the Israeli armed forces.[148]
In response to the attacks, community volunteers rallied to provide aid and support to affected people.[148] Many instances of heroism were reported within the Bedouin community during the crisis, transcending ethnic divides. For example, a Bedouin man, Yussef Alzianda, saved approximately 30 people by driving them to safety amid the chaos of the Hamas attack.[149] In another case, an Israeli family encountered Hamas terrorists near a commercial complex in the city. Dolev Swissa, the father, was fatally shot while attempting to flee with his family. Amid the chaos, Odia Swissa struggled to drive her daughters to safety. Amer Abu Sabila, a 25-year-old Bedouin construction worker from Abu Talul, noticed Odia's distress and took over the driving in an attempt to move the car out of the firing range. Near the Sderot police station, militants opened fire on the vehicle, killing both Abu Sabila and Odia Swissa, as well as policemen who tried to assist them. The story of Amer Abu Sabila's heroic act garnered widespread recognition in Israel, stirring discussions about the coexistence and cooperation between Arabs and Jews in Israel.[150][151]
Relationship with Palestinians
Before 1948 the relationships between Negev Bedouin and the farmers to the north was marked by intrinsic cultural differences as well as common language and some common traditions. Whereas the Bedouin referred to themselves as "arab" instead of "bedû" (Bedouin),
While both are Arabs, some Palestinians do not consider the Bedouin to be
A 2001 study suggested that regular meetings and cross border exchanges with relatives or friends in the West Bank, Gaza Strip and Sinai are more common than expected, casting doubt on the accepted view of the relationship between the Bedouin and Palestinians.[152]
Gallery
-
One of Rahat community centers
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A private house in Tirabin al-Sana, a settlement of theTarabin bedouin
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An entrance to the Bedouin village al-Sayyid
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One of Hura's schools
-
Rahat city view
-
At the streets of Rahat
-
An industrial park Idan HaNegev being built in close proximity to Rahat
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Private home inSegev Shalom
-
One of two al-Sayyid schools
-
A view at Rahat from a new fast growing neighborhood Rahat haHadasha
-
Private house in al-Sayyid
See also
References
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- Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs1 July 1999
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- OCLC 959573975.
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- ^ "The World Factbook". Archived from the original on 10 June 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2016.
- ^ (in Hebrew) מישיבת הוועדה לענייני ביקורת המדינה
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- ^ Kalman, Matthew (24 November 2006). "S.F.'s newest consul enjoys being Bedouin, proud to be Israeli / Ishmael Khaldi, who began life as a nomad (he was born in a small village close to Haifa), is first Muslim envoy to rise through ranks". SF Gate. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
- ^ San Francisco Chronicle, March 2009
- ^ a b Assiya Hamza, "Negev Bedouins: Israel’s forgotten victims of the Hamas attack rally to provide aid," France 24, October 17, 2023.
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Further reading
- Abu-Saad, I. (2003). "Bedouin Arabs in Israel between the Hammer and the Anvil: Education as a Foundation for Survival and Development." In Champagne, D. and Abu-Saad, I. (eds) Future of Indigenous Peoples: Strategies for Survival and Development. Los Angeles: UCLA American Indian Studies Center, pp. 103–120.
- Abu-Rabiʻa, ʻAref (2001). Bedouin Century: Education and Development among the Negev Tribes in the Twentieth Century. New York. )
- Ben-David, Y. "The Bedouins in Israel — Land Conflicts and Social Issues." Jerusalem, Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, Jerusalem, (2004)
- Eran Razin and Harvey Lithwick."The Fiscal Capacity of the Bedouin Local Authorities in the Negev" and "Investment Opportunities in the Bedouin Urban Sector"[dead link]; Ben Gurion University, 2000
- Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, People of Palestine (Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books, 2012), ASIN: B0094TU8VY
- Shamir, R. (1996) "Suspended in Space: Bedouins under the Law of Israel". Law & Society Review v30 (2), p. 231–257
- "Resolution adopted by the General Assembly -- without reference to a Main Committee (A/61/L.67 and Add.1)-- 61/295. United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples"; UN, Sept. 13 2007
- Yocheved Miriam Russo. "The Battle to settle the Negev", The Jerusalem Post, June 16, 2005
- ISBN 978-0-88728-224-9
- Bedouins in the State of Israel // The Knesset – Lexicon of Terms
External links
- Everything about the Negev Bedouin Way of Life, using two sources: Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies), The Bedouin in Israel, Israeli Foreign Ministry, July 1999.
- Negev Institute for Strategies of Peace and Development homepage
- Israel's Bedouin villages struggle for existence Archived 2009-11-24 at the Wayback Machine in the Harvard Law Record
- Israel's forgotten Bedouin, BBC News (audio)
- Joe Alon Bedouin cultural center and museum in Lahav Forest, homepage
- UNRECOGNIZED Photo Exhibition. Stories of unrecognized villages, by Tal Adler. [dead link]
- The End of the Bedouin (2 August 2012), Counterpunch article by Jillian Kestler-D'Amours, reproduced from Le Monde Diplomatique (re-accessed August 2021)
- Lands of the Negev on YouTube, a short film presented by Israel Land Administration describing the challenges faced in providing land management and infrastructure to the Bedouins in Israel's southern Negev region
- Seth Frantzman, presentation on the topic of the contested indigeneity of the Negev Bedouin, Menachem Begin Heritage Center(video).
- EoZNews: The Bedouin problem in the Negev on YouTube, 19 February 2013
- Salman Abu Sitta; Rebecca Manski; Jonathan Cook; Yeela Ranaan; Irène Steinert; Gadi Algazi; Max Blumenthal (January 2011). "Ongoing Ethnic Cleansing: Judaizing the Naqab" (PDF). JNF EBook. JNF: Colonising Palestine Since 1901. JNF eBook. 3. BDS movementwebsite.
- Sasson, Aharon (2016) [2010]. Animal Husbandry in Ancient Israel. Routledge. regions.