Paris in the Belle Époque
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Paris in the Belle Époque was a period in the history of the city between the years 1871 to 1914, from the beginning of the
The expression Belle Époque ("beautiful era") came into use after the First World War; it was a nostalgic term for what seemed a simpler time of optimism, elegance, and progress.
Rebuilding after the Commune
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Hôtel de Ville after it was burned by the Paris Commune (May 1871)
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The walls of the Tuileries Palace after arson by the Paris Commune
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Ruins of the Ministry of Finance on the Rue de Rivoli
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Remains of the column in the Place Vendome
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The Rue Royale and the church of the Madeleine
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Ruins along the Rue de Rivoli, scene of street battles between the Commune and Army
After the violent end of the Paris Commune in May 1871, the city was governed by martial law under the strict surveillance of the national government. At the time, Paris was not actually the capital of France. The government and parliament had moved to Versailles in March 1871 once the Paris Commune took power, and they did not return to Paris until 1879, although the Senate returned earlier to its home in the Luxembourg Palace.[1]
The end of the Commune left the city's population deeply divided.
The
On 23 July 1873, the National Assembly (the legislature of the early French
The Parisians
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The Pont Neuf by Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1872)
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Paris Street; Rainy Day by Caillebotte (1877)
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The Lower Market by Victor Gabriel Gilbert (1881)
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Rue de la Paix by Jean Béraud (1907)
The population of Paris was 1,851,792 in 1872, at the beginning the Belle Époque. By 1911, it reached 2,888,107, higher than the population today. Near the end of the Second Empire and the beginning of the Belle Époque, between 1866 and 1872, the population of Paris grew only 1.5%. Then the population surged by 14.09% between 1876 and 1881, only to slow again to a 3.3% growth between 1881 and 1886. After that, it grew very slowly until the end of the Belle Époque. It reached a historic high of almost three million persons in 1921 before beginning a long decline until the early 21st century.[5]
In 1886, about one-third of the population of Paris (35.7%) had been born in Paris. More than half (56.3%) had been born in other departments of France and about 8% outside France.[6] In 1891, Paris was the most cosmopolitan of European capital cities, with 75 foreign-born residents for every thousand inhabitants. In comparison, there were only 24 per thousand in Saint Petersburg, 22 in London and Vienna, and 11 in Berlin. The largest communities of immigrants were Belgians, Germans, Italians and Swiss, with between 20 and 28,000 persons from each country. Followed by these were about 10,000 from Great Britain and an equal number from Russia; 8,000 from Luxembourg; 6,000 South Americans and 5,000 Austrians. There were also 445 Africans, 439 Danes, 328 Portuguese and 298 Norwegians. Certain nationalities were concentrated in specific professions. Italians were concentrated in the businesses of making ceramics, shoes, sugar and conserves. Germans were concentrated in leather-working, brewing, baking and charcuterie. Swiss and Germans were predominant in businesses making watches and clocks, and accounted for a large proportion of the domestic servants.[7]
The remnants of old Paris
Under
Paris was both the richest and poorest city in France. Twenty-four percent of the wealth in France was found in the Seine department, but 55% of burials of Parisians were made in the section for those unable to pay. In 1878, two-thirds of Parisians paid less than 300 francs a year for their lodging, a very small amount at the time. An 1882 study of Parisians, based on funeral costs, concluded that 27% of Parisians were upper or middle class, while 73% were poor or indigent. Incomes varied greatly according to the neighborhood: in the 8th arrondissement, there were eight poor persons for ten upper or middle class residents; in the 13th, 19th and 20th arrondissements, there were seven or eight poor for every well-off resident. [10]
The Apaches of Paris
Apaches was a term that was introduced by Paris newspapers in 1902 for young Parisians who engaged in petty crime and sometimes fought each other or the police. They usually lived in Belleville and Charonne. Their activities were described in lurid terms by the popular press, and they were blamed for all varieties of crime in the city. In September 1907, the newspaper Le Gaulois described an Apache as "the man who lives on the margin of society, ready to do anything, except to take a regular job, the miserable who breaks in a doorway, or stabs a passer-by for nothing, just for pleasure."[11]
Government and politics
After the Commune took over the municipal government of Paris in March 1871, the French national government concluded that Paris was too important to be run by the Parisians alone. On 14 April 1871, just before the end of the Commune, the National Assembly, meeting in Versailles, passed a new law giving Paris a special status different from other French cities and subordinate to the national government. All male Parisians could vote. The city was given a municipal council of eighty members, four from each arrondissement, for a term of three years. The council could meet for four sessions a year, none longer than ten days, except when considering the budget, when six weeks were allowed. There was no elected mayor. The real powers in the city remained the Prefect of the Seine and the Prefect of Police, both appointed by the national government.[12]
The first legislative elections after the Commune, on 7 January 1872, were won by the conservative candidates.
The burning of the Tuileries Palace by the Commune meant that there was no longer a residence for the French
The most memorable Parisian civic event during the period was the funeral of Victor Hugo in 1885. Hundreds of thousands of Parisians lined the Champs-Élysées to see the passage of his coffin. The Arc de Triomphe was draped in black. The remains of the writer were placed in the Panthéon, formerly the Church of Saint-Geneviève, which had been turned into a mausoleum for great Frenchmen during the French Revolution, then turned back into a church in April 1816, during the Bourbon Restoration. After several changes during the 19th century, it was secularized again in 1885 for the occasion of Victor Hugo's funeral.[14]
Social unrest, anarchists and the Boulanger crisis
The Belle Époque was spared the violent uprisings that brought down two French regimes in the 19th century, but it had its share of political and social conflicts and occasional violence. Labor unions and strikes had been legalized during the regime of Napoleon III. The first labor union congress in Paris took place in October 1876,[15] and the socialist party recruited many members among the Paris workers. On May 1, 1890, the socialists organized the first celebration of May Day, the international day of labor. Since it was an unauthorized celebration, it led to confrontations between police and demonstrators.
The majority of political violence came from the
Another political crisis shook Paris beginning on 2 December 1887, when the president of the republic,
The Police
The Paris police force was completely re-organized after the fall of Napoleon III and the Commune; the sergents de ville were replaced by the gardiens de la paix publique (Guardians of the Public Peace), which by June 1871 had 7,756 men under the authority of the Prefect of Police named by the national government. Following a series of anarchist bombings in 1892, the number was increased to 7,000 guardians, 80 brigadiers and 950 sous-brigadiers. In 1901, under the prefect Louis Lépine, in order to keep up with the technology of the time, a unit of policemen on bicycles (called the hirondelles after the brand of the bicycles) was formed. They numbered 18 per arrondissement and reached 600 by 1906 for the whole city. A unit of river police, the brigade fluviale, was organized in 1900 for the Universal Exposition, as well as a unit of traffic police who wore a symbol of a Roman chariot embroidered on the sleeve of their uniform. The first six motorcycle policemen appeared on the streets in 1906.[18]
In addition to the gardiens de la paix publique, Paris was guarded by the Garde républicaine under the military command of the Gendarmerie Nationale. Gendarmes had been a particular target of the Commune; 33 had been taken hostages and were executed by a (Communard) firing squad on Rue Haxo on 23 May 1871 in the last days of the Commune. In June 1871, they provided security in the damaged city. They numbered 6,500 men in two regiments, plus a unit of cavalry and a dozen cannon. The number was reduced in 1873 to 4,000 men in a single regiment, called the Légion de la Garde républicaine (Legion of the Republican Guard), with its headquarters on the Quai de Bourbon and troops quartered in several barracks around the city. The Republican Guard was given the duty of providing security for the president of the republic at the Élysée Palace, the National Assembly and the Senate, at the prefecture of police, and also at the Opéra, theaters, public balls, racetracks, and other public places. A unit of bicyclists was formed on 6 June 1907. When World War I began, the entire unit of Paris gendarmes was mobilized and fought at the front during war; 222 of them lost their lives. [19]
By a decree of 29 June 1912, to assure the security of Paris by fighting organized criminals such as the Apaches and the bande à Bonnot, a criminal section called the Brigade criminelle was created.[20]
Religion
Paris in the Belle Époque witnessed a long and sometimes bitter dispute between the Catholic Church and governments of the Third Republic. During the Commune, the Church was particularly targeted for attack; 24 priests and the Archbishop of Paris were taken hostages and shot by firing squads in the final days of the Commune. The new government after 1871 was conservative and Catholic, and provided substantial funding for the Church establishment through the Ministère des Cultes, which approved the building of the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur on Montmartre without government funds as an act of expiation for the events of 1870–1871. The anti-clerical Republicans took power in 1879, and one of their leaders,
The new Municipal Council of Paris, also dominated by radical republicans, had little formal power, but it took many symbolic measures against the Church. Nuns and other religious figures were forbidden to have official positions in hospitals, statues were put up to honor Voltaire and Diderot, and the Panthéon was secularized in 1885 to receive the remains of Victor Hugo. Several of the streets of Paris were renamed for republican and socialist heroes, including Auguste Comte (1885), François-Vincent Raspail (1887), Armand Barbès (1882), and Louis Blanc (1885). Specifically forbidden by the Catholic Church, cremation was authorized at Père Lachaise Cemetery. In 1899, the Dreyfus affair divided Parisians (and the whole of France) even more; the Catholic newspaper La Croix published virulent anti-Semitic articles against the army officer.[22]
The new National Assembly of 1901 had a strongly anti-clerical majority. At the urging of the socialist members, the Assembly officially voted the separation of Church and State on 9 December 1905. The budget of 35 million francs a year given to the Church was cut off, and disputes took place over the official residences of the clergy. On December 17, the police evicted the Archbishop of Paris from his official residence at 127 Rue de Grenelle; the Church responded by banning midnight masses in the city. A law of 1907 finally resolved the issue of property; churches built before that date, including the cathedral of Notre Dame, became the property of the French state, while the Catholic Church was given the right to use them for religious purposes. Despite the cutoff of government assistance, the Catholic Church was able to build 24 new churches, including 15 in the suburbs of Paris, between 1906 and 1914. Official relations between Church and State were almost non-existent to the end of the Belle Époque.[23]
The Jewish community in Paris had grown from 500 in 1789, or one percent of the Jewish community in France, to 30,000 in 1869, or 40 percent. Beginning in 1881, there were new waves of immigration from Eastern Europe that brought 7 to 9,000 new arrivals each year, and French-born Jews in the 3rd and 4th arrondissements were soon outnumbered by new arrivals, whose numbers increased from 16 percent of the population in those arrondissements to 61 percent. The
There was no mosque in Paris until after the First World War. In 1920, the National Assembly voted to honor the memory of the estimated one hundred thousand Muslims from the French colonies in the Maghreb and black Africa who died for France during the war, and gave a credit of 500,000 francs to build the Grand Mosque of Paris.[25]
The economy
The economy of Paris suffered an economic crisis in the early 1870s, followed by a long, slow recovery that led to a period of rapid growth beginning in 1895 until the First World War. Between 1872 and 1895, 139 large enterprises closed their doors in Paris, particularly textile and furniture factories, metallurgy concerns, and printing houses, four industries had been the major employers in the city for sixty years. Most of these enterprises had employed between 100 and 200 workers each. Half of the large enterprises on the center of the city's Right Bank moved out, in part because of the high cost of real estate, and also to get better access to transportation on the river and railroads. Several moved to less-expensive areas at the edges of the city, around Montparnasse and La Salpêtriére, while others went to the 18th arrondissement, La Villette and the Canal Saint-Denis to be closer to the river ports and the new railroad freight yards. Still others relocated to Picpus and Charonne in the southeast, or near Grenelle and Javel in the southwest. The total number of enterprises in Paris dropped from 76,000 in 1872 to 60,000 in 1896, while in the suburbs their number grew from 11,000 to 13,000. In the heart of Paris, many workers were still employed in traditional industries such as textiles (18,000 workers), garment production (45,000 workers), and in new industries which required highly skilled workers, such as mechanical and electrical engineering and automobile manufacturing.[26]
Cars, airplanes and movies
Three major new French industries were born in and around Paris at about the turn of the 20th century, taking advantage of the abundance of skilled engineers and technicians and financing from Paris banks. They produced the first French automobiles, aircraft, and motion pictures. In 1898, Louis Renault and his brother Marcel built their first automobile and founded a new company to produce them. They established their first factory at Boulogne-Billancourt, just outside the city, and made the first French truck in 1906. In 1908, they built 3,595 cars, making them the largest car manufacturer in France. They also received an important contract to make taxicabs for the largest Paris taxi company. When the first World War began in 1914, the Renault taxis of Paris were mobilized to carry French soldiers to the front at the First Battle of the Marne.
The French aviation pioneer
The
Commerce and the department stores
The Belle Époque in Paris was the golden age of the Grand magasin, or department store. The first modern department store in the city, Le Bon Marché, was originally a small variety store with a staff of twelve when it was taken over by Aristide Boucicaut in 1852. Boucicaut expanded it, and by deft discount pricing, advertising, and innovative marketing (a mail order catalog, seasonal sales, fashion shows, gifts to customers, entertainment for children) turned it into a hugely successful enterprise with a staff of eleven hundred employees and income that increased from 5 million francs in 1860 to 20 million in 1870, then reached 72 million at the time of his death in 1877. He built an enormous new building near the site of the original shop on the Left Bank, with an iron structure designed with the help of the engineering firm of Gustave Eiffel.
The success of Bon Marché inspired many competitors. The
High fashion and luxury goods
At the beginning of the Belle Époque, the industry of
The growth of the department stores and tourism created a much larger market for luxury goods, such as perfumes, watches and jewelry. The perfumer François Coty began making scents in 1904, and achieved his first success selling through department stores. He discovered the importance of elegant bottles in marketing perfume and commissioned Baccarat and René Lalique to design bottles in the Art Nouveau style. He realized the desire of middle class consumers to have luxury goods and sold a range of less-expensive perfumes. He also invented the fragrance set, a box of perfume, powder soap, cream and cosmetics with the same scent. He was so successful that in 1908 he built a new laboratory and factory, La Cité des Parfums ("The City of Perfume"), at Suresnes in the Paris suburbs. It had 9,000 employees and made one hundred thousand bottles of perfume a day.[31]: 24
The watchmaker Louis-François Cartier opened a shop in Paris in 1847. In 1899, his grandchildren moved the shop to the Rue de la Paix and made the shop international, opening branches in London (1902), Moscow (1908) and New York (1909). His grandson
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A costume for roller skating at the Bal Bullier (1876)
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Bicycling costumes (1898)
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Designs by Paul Poiret (1908)
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An evening theater dress by Jeanne Paquin (1914)
Tourism, hotels and railroad stations
The industry of mass tourism and large luxury hotels had arrived in Paris under Napoleon III, driven by new railroads and the huge crowds that had come for the first international expositions. The expositions and the crowds grew even larger during the Belle Époque; twenty-three million visitors came to Paris for the
The growing number of visitors to Paris required the enlargement of the main train stations to handle all the passengers. The
From the fiacre to the taxicab
In the first part of the Belle Époque, the fiacre was the most common form of public transport for individuals; it was a box-line small horse-drawn coach with driver carrying two passengers that could be hired by the hour or by the distance of the trip. In 1900, there were about ten thousand fiacres in service in Paris; half belonged to a single company, the Compagnie générale des voitures de Paris; the other five thousand belonged to about five hundred small companies. The first two automobile taxis entered service in 1898, at a time when there were just 1,309 automobiles in Paris. The number remained very small at first; there were just eighteen in service during the Exposition of 1900, only eight in 1904, and 39 in 1905. However, by the end of 1905, the automobile taxi began to take off; there were 417 on the streets of Paris in 1906, and 1,465 at the end of 1907. Most were made by the Renault company in their factory on the Île Seguin, an island on the Seine between Boulogne-Billancourt and Sèvres. There were four large taxi companies; the largest, the Compagnie française des automobiles de place owned more than a thousand taxis. Beginning 1898, the automobile taxis were equipped with a meter to measure the distance and calculate the fare. First called a taxamètre, it was renamed taximètre on 17 October 1904, which gave birth to the name "taxi". In 1907, Renault began building three thousand specially-built taxis; some were exported to London and others to New York City. The ones that went into service in New York were named "taxi cabriolets", which was shortened in America to "taxicab". By 1913, there were seven thousand taxis on the streets of Paris.[34]
The omnibus, the tramway and the metro
At the beginning of the Belle Époque, the horse-drawn omnibus was the primary means of public transport. In 1855, Haussmann consolidated ten private omnibus companies into a single company, the C.G.O. (Compagnie générale des Omnibus) and gave it the monopoly on public transport. The coaches of the CGO carried twenty-four to twenty-six passengers and ran on thirty-one different lines. The omnibus system was overwhelmed by the number of visitors at the 1867 Exposition, thus the city began to develop a new system of tramways in 1873. The omnibus continued to run, with larger cars that could carry forty passengers in 1880, and then, in 1888–89, a lighter vehicle that could carry thirty passengers, called an omnibus à impériale. The horse-drawn tramway gradually replaced the horse-drawn omnibus. In 1906, the first motorized omnibuses began to run on Paris streets. The last horse-drawn omnibus run took place on January 11, 1913 between Saint-Sulpice and La Villette.[35]
The horse-drawn tramway, running on a track flush with the street, had been introduced in New York in 1832. A French engineer living in New York, Loubat, brought the idea to Paris and opened the first tramway line in Paris, between the Place de la Concorde and the Barrière de Passy in November 1853. He extended the line, known as the Chemin de fer américain ("American rail line"), all the way across Paris from Boulogne to Vincennes in 1856. But then it was purchased by the CGO, the main omnibus line, and remained simply a curiosity. Only in 1873 did the tramway begin to gain importance, when the CGO lost its monopoly on city transport and two new companies, Tramways Nord and Tramways Sud, one financed by Belgian banks and the other by British banks, began operating from the center of Paris to the suburbs. The CGO responded by opening two new lines, one from the Louvre to Vincennes, the other following the line of fortifications around the city. By 1878, forty different lines were operating, half by the CGO. The companies tried a brief experiment with steam-powered tramways in 1876, but abandoned them in 1878. The electric-powered tramway, in service in Berlin since 1881, did not arrive in Paris until 1898, with a line from Saint-Denis to the Madeleine.[36]
When the 1900 Universal Exposition was announced in 1898 in anticipation of millions of visitors coming to Paris, most of the public transport in Paris was still horse-drawn; forty-eight lines of omnibuses and thirty-four tramway lines still used horses, while there were just thirty-six lines of electric tramways. The last horse-drawn tramways were replaced with electric trams in 1914.
Other cities were well ahead of Paris in introducing underground or elevated metropolitan railways: London (1863), New York (1868), Berlin (1878), Chicago (1892), Budapest (1896) and Vienna (1898) all had them before Paris. The reason for the delay was a fierce battle between the French railway companies and national government, which wanted a metropolitan system based on the existing railroad stations that would bring passengers in from the suburbs (like the modern RER). The Municipal Council of Paris, in contrast, wanted an independent underground metro only in the twenty arrondissements of the city that would support the tramways and omnibuses on the streets. The plan of the municipality won and was approved on 30 March 1898; it called for six lines totaling sixty-five kilometers of track. They chose the Belgian method of construction, with the lines just under the surface of the street, rather than the deep tunnels of the London system.
The first line, which connected the
Constructing Paris
Monuments
Most of the notable monuments of the Belle Époque were constructed for use at the Universal Expositions, for example the
Streets and boulevards
The construction of the new boulevards and streets begun by Napoleon III and Haussmann had been much criticized by Napoleon's opponents near the end of the Second Empire, but the government of the Third Republic continued his projects. The Avenue de l'Opéra, Boulevard Saint-Germain, Avenue de la République, Boulevard Henry-IV and Avenue Ledru-Rollin were all completed by 1889 essentially as Haussmann had planned them before his death. After 1889, the pace of construction slowed down. The Boulevard Raspail was finished, the Rue Réaumur was extended, and several new streets were created on the left bank: the Rue de la Convention, Rue de Vouillé, Rue d'Alésia, and Rue de Tolbiac. On the Right Bank, the Rue Étienne-Marcel was the last of the Haussmann projects to be completed before the First World War.[37]
While the streets planned by Haussmann were completed, the strict uniformity of façades and building heights imposed by him was gradually modified. Buildings became much larger and deeper, with two apartments on each floor facing the street and others facing only onto the courtyard. The new buildings often had ornamental rotundas or pavilions on the corners and highly ornamental roof designs and gables. In 1902, maximum building heights were increased to 52 meters. With the advent of elevators, the most desirable apartments were no longer on the lowest floors, but on the highest floors, where there was more light, nicer views and less noise. With the arrival of automobiles and the beginning of traffic noise on the streets, the bedrooms moved to the back of the apartment, overlooking the courtyard.[39]
The façades also changed from the strict symmetry of Haussmann: undulating façades appeared, as did bay and bow windows. Eclectic façades became popular; they often mixed the styles of
Architecture
The architectural style of the Belle Époque was eclectic and sometimes combined elements of several different styles. While the structures of the new buildings were resolutely modern, using iron frames and reinforced concrete, the façades ranged from the
A revolutionary new building material,
The
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TheRomano-Byzantine style of the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur(1873-1919)
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The Gallery of Machines from the Universal Exposition of 1889
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The Castel Béranger by Hector Guimard (1899)
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The Grand Palais (1900)
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The Church ofSaint-Jean-de-Montmartre (1894-1904), the first church built of reinforced concrete
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The Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1913) in Art Deco style
Bridges
Eight new bridges were put across the Seine during the Belle Époque. The
Parks, gardens and squares
The work of creating parks, squares and promenades during the Belle Époque continued in the Second Empire style. The projects were managed at first by
During the exposition of 1878, Alphand used the Champ de Mars as the site of a huge iron-framed exhibit hall, 725 meters long, surrounded by gardens. For the 1889 exposition, the same site was occupied by the Eiffel Tower and the huge Gallery of Machines, plus two large exhibit halls: the Palace of Liberal Arts and the Palace of Fine Arts. The two palaces were designed by Jean-Camille Formigé, the chief architect of Paris. The two palaces and the Gallery of Machines were demolished after the exposition, but in 1909, Formigé was given the task of transforming the exposition site around the Eiffel Tower into a park with broad lawns, promenades and groves of trees in the form it is today.[43]
Between 1895 and 1898, Formigé created another Belle Époque landmark, the
Other than the parks of the expositions, no other large Paris parks were created in the Belle Époque, but several squares of about one hectare each were created. They all had the same basic design: a bandstand in the center, a fence, groves of trees and flower beds, and often also statues. These included the Square Édouard-Vaillant in the 20th arrondissement (1879), the Square Samuel-de-Champlain in the 20th arrondissement (1889), the Square des Épinettes in the 17th arrondissement (1893), the Square Scipion in the 5th arrondissement (1899), the Square Paul-Painlevé in the 5th arrondissement (1899) and the Square Carpeaux in the 18th arrondissement (1907).[43]
The best-known and most picturesque park of the period is that composed of the Squares Willette and Nadar on the slope directly below the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur on Montmartre. It was begun by Formigé in 1880, but not completed until 1927 by another architect, Léopold Béviére, after the death of Formigé in 1926. The park features terraces and slopes dropping eighty meters from the Basilica to the street below, and has one of the best-known views in Paris.
Street lighting
At the beginning of the Belle Époque, Paris was lit by a constellation of thousands of gaslights that were often admired by foreign visitors and helped give the city its nickname La Ville-Lumière: the "City of Light". In 1870, there were 56,573 gaslights used exclusively to illuminate the streets of the city.[44] The gas was produced by ten enormous factories around the edge of the city that were located near the circle of fortifications. It was distributed in pipes installed under the new boulevards and streets. The street lights were placed every twenty meters on the Grands Boulevards. At a predetermined minute after nightfall, a small army of 750 uniformed allumeurs ("lighters") carrying long poles with small lamps at the end went out into the streets to turn on a pipe of gas inside each lamppost and light the lamp. The entire city was illuminated within forty minutes. The Arc de Triomphe was crowned with a ring of gaslights, and the Champs-Élysées was lined with ribbons of white light.[44]
One of the major urban innovations in Paris was the introduction of
The Paris Universal Expositions
The three "universal expositions" that took place in Paris during the Belle Époque attracted millions of visitors from around the world and displayed the newest innovations in science and technology, from the telephone and phonograph to electric street lighting.
The 1878 Universal Exposition
The
The 1889 Universal Exposition
The
The 1900 Universal Exposition
The
Restaurants, cafés, and brasseries
Paris was already famous for its restaurants in the first half of the 19th century, particularly the Café Riche, the Maison Dorée and the Café Anglais on the Grands Boulevards, where the wealthy personalities of Balzac's novels would dine. The Second Empire had added more luxury restaurants, particularly in the center near the new grand hotels: Durand at the Madeleine; Voisin on the Rue Cambon and
For those with more modest budgets, there was the Bouillon, a type of restaurant begun by a butcher named Duval in 1867. These establishment served simple and inexpensive food and were popular with students and visitors. One from this period, Chartier, near the Grands Boulevards, still exists.
A new type of restaurant, the Brasserie, appeared in Paris during the 1867 Universal Exposition. The name originally meant a place that brewed beer, but in 1867 it was a type of café where young women in the national costumes of different countries served different drinks of those countries, including beer, ale, chianti, and vodka. The idea was continued after the Exposition by the Brasserie de l'Espérance on the Rue Champollion on the Left Bank, and was soon imitated by others. By 1890, there were forty-two brasseries on the Left Bank, with names including the Brasserie des Amours, the Brasserie de la Vestale, the Brasserie des Belles Marocaines, and the Brasserie des Excentriques Polonais (brasserie of the eccentric Poles), and they were often used as a place to meet prostitutes.[53]
Sports
Paris played a central role in the organization of international sports and in the professionalization of sports. The first efforts to revive the Olympic Games were led by a French educator and historian, Pierre de Coubertin. The first meeting to organize the games took place at the Sorbonne in 1894, resulting in the creation of the International Olympic Committee and the holding of the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896. The second games, the first Olympics held outside of Greece, were the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, from 14 May until 28 October 1900, organized in conjunction with the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900. There were 19 sports included in the event, and women competed in the Olympics for the first time. The swimming events took place in the Seine. Some of the sports were unusual by modern standards; they included automobile and motorcycle racing, cricket, croquet, underwater swimming, tug-of-war, and shooting live pigeons.
Cycling also became an important professional sport, with the opening in 1903 of the first cycling stadium, the
In September 1901, Paris hosted the first European
The first championship of France in football took place in 1894, with six teams competing. It was won by the team Standard Athletic Club of Paris; the team had one French player and ten British players. The first rugby match between England and France took place on 26 March 1906 at the Parc des Princes, with the victory of England.
Paris also hosted several of the world's earliest automobile races. The first, in 1894, was the Paris-Rouen race, organized by the newspaper Le Petit Journal. The first Paris-Bordeaux race took place on 10–12 June 1895, and the first race from Paris to Monte-Carlo in 1911.[54]
Science and technology
Scientists in Paris played a leading role in many of major scientific developments of the period, particularly in bacteriology and physics. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) was a pioneer in vaccination, microbacterial fermentation and pasteurization. He developed the first vaccines against anthrax (1881) and rabies (1885), and the process for stopping bacterial growth in milk and wine. He founded the Pasteur Institute in 1888 to carry on his work, and his tomb is located at the institute.[55]
The physicist
The
The arts
Literature
During the Belle Époque, Paris was the home and inspiration for some of France's most famous writers.
Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893) moved to Paris in 1881 and worked as a clerk for the French Navy, then for the Ministry of Public Education, as he wrote short stories and novels at a furious pace. He became famous, but also became ill and depressed, then paranoid and suicidal. He died at the asylum of Saint-Esprit in Passy in 1893.
Other writers who made a mark in the Paris literary world of the Third Republic's Belle Époque included Anatole France (1844-1924); Paul Claudel (1868-1955); Alphonse Allais (1854-1905); Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918); Maurice Barrès (1862-1923); René Bazin (1853-1932); Colette (1873-1954); François Coppée (1842-1908); Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897); Alain Fournier (1886-1914); André Gide (1869-1951); Pierre Louÿs (1870-1925); Maurice Maeterlinck (1862-1949); Stéphane Mallarmé (1840-1898); Octave Mirbeau (1848-1917); Anna de Noailles (1876-1933); Charles Péguy (1873-1914); Marcel Proust (1871-1922); Jules Renard (1864-1910); Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891); Romain Rolland (1866-1944); Edmond Rostand (1868-1918); and Paul Verlaine (1844-1890). Paris was also the home of one of the greatest Russian writers of the period, Ivan Turgenev.
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Guy de Maupassant (1888)
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Paul Verlaine (1893)
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Stéphane Mallarmé (1896)
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Marcel Proust (1900)
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Emile Zola(1902)
Music
Paris composers during the period had a major impact on European music, moving it away from romanticism toward impressionism in music and modernism.
The most famous French composer of the late Belle Époque in Paris was
The most revolutionary composer to work in Paris during the Belle Époque was the Russian-born Igor Stravinsky. He first achieved international fame with three ballets commissioned by the impresario Sergei Diaghilev and first performed in Paris by Diaghilev's Ballets Russes: The Firebird (1910), Petrushka (1911) and The Rite of Spring (1913). The last of these transformed the way in which subsequent composers thought about rhythmic structure and dissonance treatment.
Other influential composers in Paris during the period included
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Georges Bizet (1875)
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Camille Saint-Saëns (about 1880)
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Jules Massenet (1880)
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Eric Satie
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Igor Stravinsky, as drawn by Picasso (1920)
Painting
Paris was the home and the frequent subject of the
The first exhibit of the Impressionists took place from April 15 to May 15, 1874 in the studio of the photographer
A new generation of artists arrived in Montmartre at the turn of the century. Drawn by the reputation of Paris as the world capital of art,
The
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Portrait of the painter Claude Monet, Claude Monet as portrayed by Pierre-Auguste Renoir(1875)
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Self-portrait of Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1876)
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Henri Matisse (1913)
Sculpture
The Belle Époque was a golden age for sculptors; the government of the Third Republic commissioned very few monumental buildings, but did commission a large number of statues to French writers, scientists, artists and political figures that soon filled the city's parks and squares. The most prominent sculptor of the period was
Other more traditional sculptors whose work won acclaim in Paris during the Belle Époque included Jules Dalou, Antoine Bourdelle (also a former assistant of Rodin), and Aristide Maillol. Their works decorated theaters, parks, and were featured at the International Expositions. The more avant-garde artists organized themselves into the Société des Artistes Indépendants. They held annual Salons that helped set the course of modern art. At the turn of the century, Paris attracted sculptors from around the world. Constantin Brâncuși (1876-1957) moved from Bucharest to Munich to Paris, where he was admitted, in 1905, to the École des Beaux-Arts. He worked for two months in the workshop of Rodin, but left, declaring that "Nothing grows under big trees", and went in his own direction into modernism. Brâncuși won fame at the 1913 "Salon des indépendants" and became one of the pioneers of modern sculpture.[67]
The flood of 1910
The Paris flood of 1910 reached the height of 8.5 meters on the scale measuring the river's level on the Pont de la Tournelle. The Seine rose above its banks and flooded along the course it had followed in prehistoric times; the water reached as far as the Gare Saint-Lazare and the Place du Havre. It was the second-highest flood recorded in the history of Paris (the highest was in 1658), and was the third major flood of the Belle Époque (the others were in 1872 and 1876). Nonetheless, it received much more attention than earlier floods, largely because of the advent of photography and the international press. Postcards and other images of the flood spread around the world. The municipal authorities made a special survey of the city to measure exactly its extent. It also demonstrated the vulnerability of the city's new infrastructure: the flood stopped the Paris Metro and shut down the city's electricity and telephone system. Afterwards, new dams were constructed along the Seine and its major tributaries. No comparable floods have taken place since. [68]
The end of the Belle Époque
On 28 June 1914, the news reached Paris of the assassination of the Archduke
The German army rapidly approached Paris. On 30 August, a German plane dropped three bombs on the Rue des Récollets, the Quai de Valmy and the Rue des Vinaigriers, killing one woman. Planes dropped bombs on 31 August and 1 September. On 2 September, a bulletin of the military governor of Paris announced that the French government had left the city "in order to give a new impulsion to the defense of the nation." On 6 September, six hundred Parisian taxis were called upon to carry soldiers to the front lines of the First Battle of the Marne. The offensive of the Germans was stopped and their army pulled back. Parisians were urged to leave the city; by 8 September, the population of the city had fallen to 1,800,000, or 63 percent of the population in 1911. For the Parisians, four more years of war and hardship lay ahead. The Belle Époque became just a memory.[69]
Chronology
1871-1899
- 1872
- Population: 1,850,000 [70]
- 13 January – opening of the École Libre des Sciences Politiques, or Sciences Po.
- 1873
- 24 July – Law passed supporting the construction of the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur on Montmartre, financed by private contributions.
- 1874
- French government returns to Paris from Versailles. MacMahon, first president of the French Third Republic, moves into the Élysée Palace.
- 7 May – Société de l'histoire de Paris et de l'Île-de-France founded at the École nationale des chartes.[71]
- 15 April – First Paris exhibit by Nadar. [72]
- 12 August – Opening of canal bringing the water of the Vanne river to Paris.
- French government returns to Paris from Versailles.
- 1875
- 5 January – Opening of the Palais Garnier opera house.
- 3 March: Premiere of Bizet's opera Carmen.
- 15 June – first stone placed of the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur.
- 1877
- Population: 1,985,000 [70]
- 1878
- 1 May – Opening of the Universal Exposition of 1878 held at the Trocadero Palace and on the Champ de Mars.
- 30 May – The first test of electric lighting on the Place de l'Étoile.[73]
- 1879
- July – Installation of first telephone system in Paris.
- 1880
- 3 January – The ice on the Seine thaws suddenly, and the river rises more than two meters in three hours, sweeping away the Pont des Invalides under reconstruction.[73]
- 10 July – Amnesty for those imprisoned or exiled after the Paris Commune.
- 14 July – Bastille Day is celebrated officially for the first time since 1802.
- The Brasserie des Bords du Rhin opens.
- The 36 Quai des Orfèvres.
- The History of Paris Carnavalet Museumopens.
- 1881
- 15 August (through 15 November) – The International Exposition of Electricityis held, highlighted by the illumination of the Grands Boulevards with electric lights.
- 18 August – Opening of the Le Chat Noir, the first modern cabaret, in Montmartre.[74]
- 15 August (through 15 November) – The
- 1882
- January – Collapse of the Union Générale bank, the cause of the Paris Bourse crash of 1882.
- 10 January – Opening of the Musée Grévin, the first Paris wax museum, in the Passage Jouffroy.
- 12 April – Inauguration of the Musée d'Ethnographie du Trocadéro.
- 13 July – Opening of the reconstructed Hôtel de Ville, burned by the Commune in 1871.
- 1883
- 16 June – The Catholic daily newspaper La Croix begins publication.
- 14 July – Inauguration of the statue Monument à la République on the Place de la République.
- August – First municipal summer camp for students of the schools of the 9th arrondissement.
- 22 September – The opening of the first lycée for girls, the Lycée Fénelon.
- 1884
- 7 March – Decree requiring the use of trash cans, nicknamed poubelles after the Prefect of Paris Eugène Poubelle, who introduced it.[74]
- 8 July – Opening of the first municipal swimming pool at 31 Rue du Château-Landon.
- 23 July – Law allowing construction of residential buildings up to seven stories high.
- 7 November – Last serious cholera epidemic in Paris.
- Students' General Association of Paris founded.
- Les Deux Magots café opens.
- Samuel Bingart gallery opens.
- Premiere of Massenet's opera Manon.
- 2 February – Municipal Council allows women to work as interns in Paris hospitals.
- 1 June – Huge crowds observe the funeral procession of Victor Hugo, whose remains are placed in the Panthéon.
- 3 August – First stone laid for the new buildings of the Sorbonne.
- 1887
- January – Construction begins of the Eiffel Tower. The structure is strongly condemned by leading Paris writers and artists.[75]
- 25 May – A fire destroys the Opéra-Comique during a performance of Mignon; more than a hundred persons are killed.
- 1888
- 14 November – Dedication of the Institut Pasteur by Louis Pasteur.
- Lycée Molière opens.
- 14 November – Dedication of the
- 1889
- First Paris telephone book published.
- 30 January – First cremation in France at Père Lachaise Cemetery.
- 2 April – Opening of the Eiffel Tower. Guests must climb to the top by the stairs, because the elevators are not finished until May 19.[75]
- 6 May – Opening of the Universal Exposition of 1889. Before it closes on 6 November, the Exposition is seen by twenty-five million visitors.[75]
- 14 July – Socialist Second International founded in Paris.
- 5 August – Opening of the grand amphitheater of the new Sorbonne.
- 1890
- 1 May – First celebration of May 1 Labor Day by socialists in France, leading to confrontations with police.
- 1891 – Population: 2,448,000 [70]
- 15 March – One time zone, Paris time, is established for all of France.
- 20 May – First professional cooking school founded on the Rue Bonaparte.[76]
- 1892
- Le Journalnewspaper begins publication.
- First use of reinforced concrete to construct a building in Paris, at 1 Rue Danton.
- 4 October – Launch of the first weather balloon from the Parc Monceau.
- 1893
- 7 April – Café Maxim'sopens.
- 12 April – opening of the Olympia music hall on the Boulevard des Capucines.
- 3 July – Disturbances in the Latin Quarter between students and supporters of Senator René Bérenger over supposedly indecent costumes worn at the Bal des Quatre z'arts. One person is killed.[76]
- December – Opening of the Galerie des Machinesfrom the 1889 Exposition.
- 9 December – the anarchist Auguste Vaillant explodes a bomb in the National Assembly, injuring forty-six persons.
- 7 April – Café
- 1894
- 10 to 30 January – The Photo-Club de Paris, founded in 1888 by Constant Puyo, Robert Demachy and Maurice Boucquet, holds the first International Exposition of Photography at the Galeries Georges Petit,[77] 8 rue de Sèze (8th arrondissement), devoted to photography as an art rather than a science. The exhibit launches the movement called Pictorialism.
- First championship of France football tournament between six Parisian teams.
- 12 February – The anarchist Émile Henry explodes a bomb in the café of the Gare Saint-Lazare, killing one person and wounding twenty-three.
- 15 March – The anarchist Amédée Pauwels explodes a bomb in the church of La Madeleine. One person, the bomber, is killed.
- 22 July – The first automobile race, organized by Le Petit Journal, from Paris to Rouen.
- Asile George Sand (women's shelter) opens.
- 1895
- Opening of the first Galeries Lafayette department store[78]
- 22 March – first projected showing of a motion picture by Louis Lumière at a conference on the future industry of cinematography at 44 Rue de Rennes.[79]
- 10 August – The founding of the Gaumont Film Company, the first major French film studio.
- Le Cordon Bleu cooking school opens.
- Maison de l'Art Nouveau art gallery opens.
- 12 November – French Automobile Clubis founded.
- 28 December – First public projection of a motion picture by the Lumière Brothers in the basement of the Grand Café on the corner of Rue Scribe and the Boulevard des Capucines. Thirty-eight persons attend, including future director Georges Méliès.
- 1896
- 6 October – Czar Nicholas II of Russia lays the first stone for the Pont Alexandre III.
- 7 December – the Municipal Council approves the project to build the first Paris Metropolitan subway line.
- 1897
- The Théâtre du Grand-Guignolopens.
- The Parc des Princes velodrome opens.
- 4 April – The first women are allowed to attend the École des Beaux-Arts.
- 13 July – The opening of the Musée de l'Armée (Army Museum) at Les Invalides.
- 3 September – opening of the first movie theater, in the Théâtre Robert-Houdon on the Boulevard des Italiens. The theater is rented for three months by Georges Méliès to show films.
- 4 December – The first Paris automobile show held as part of the "Salon du Cycle" at the Palais des Sportson the Rue de Berri.
- The
- 1898
- 13 January – J'accuse in L'Aurorenewspaper.
- 20 April – The first motorcycle race at Longchamp Racecourse.
- 19 September – The work begins on the Paris Métro.
- 20 October – The first wireless communication made between the Eiffel Tower and the Panthéon by Eugène Ducretet and Ernest Roger.
- The Hôtel Ritz Paris opens.
- Le Dôme Café opens.
- 13 January –
- 1899
- Inauguration of the monumental statue Triomphe de la République by Jules Dalou on the Place de la Nation.
1900–1913
- 1900
- 13 February – Whistles are issued to Paris traffic policemen.
- 24 February – The first newsreel films, of the Boer War, are shown at the Olympia Theater.
- 14 April – The opening of the Universal Exposition of 1900 that involved the building of the Grand Palais, the Petit Palais, and the Pont Alexandre III. Before it closes on 12 November, the Exposition attracts more than fifty million visitors.[80]
- 13 May – Right-wing candidates win the municipal elections after twenty years of domination by the left.
- 14 May – The opening of the 1900 Summer Olympics, Olympiad II, the first Olympic games held outside Greece.
- 19 July – The opening of the first line of the Porte Maillot.
- 15 September – Automatic ticket gates for the metro are replaced by ticket agents due to the high number of people jumping the gates.
- 4 December – Law passed permitting women to practice law.
- 1901
- Population: 2,715,000[70]
- The Pathé opens a film production studio in Vincennes.
- April 1 – The opening of the new Gare de Lyon train station, including the restaurant Le Train Bleu.
- 1 July – The opening of the first electric train line in Europe between Versailles.
- 28 September – First European lawn tennischampionship held in Paris.
- 1902
- 26 January – First Gitanes cigarettes go on sale.
- 16 October – First use of fingerprints by Paris police to identify a murderer.
- Première of the Georges Méliès film A Trip to the Moon.[81]
- Première of the opera Pelléas et Mélisande by Claude Debussy.[82]
- 1903
- 1 July – Start of the first Tour de France, which ended on 19 July with a parade of the winners at the Parc des Princes.
- 10 August – The first serious Métro accident at Couronnesstation, with eighty-four persons killed.
- 4 September – Opening of the haute couture fashion house of Paul Poiret.
- The first Galerie des Machinesof the 1900 Paris Exposition.
- Première of Business is Business.
- 1904
- 6 February – Opening of the Alhambra music hall on Rue de Malte.
- 18 April – The socialist (later Communist) newspaper L'Humanité begins publication.[83]
- 8 May – Socialists and radicals win the Paris municipal elections.
- 23 November – Consecration of the first Paris church built of concrete, Saint-Jean-l'Évangéliste de Montmartre.
- 20 December – The first automobile taxis go into service.
- 1905
- After viewing the boldly colored canvases of Henri Matisse, André Derain, Maurice de Vlaminck and others at the Salon d'Automne of 1905, the critic Louis Vauxcelles disparages the painters as "fauves" (wild beasts), thus giving their movement the name by which it became known, Fauvism.[84]
- The Gaumont Film Company's Cité Elgé studios opens at Buttes-Chaumont.
- First underground public toilets open at the Place de la Madeleine.
- 1906
- Population: 2,722,731.[85]
- 22 March – First England-France Rugby match played at the Parc des Princes.
- 11 June – The first motorized bus line begins service between Montmartre and Saint-Germain-des-Prés. Horse-drawn omnibuses continued to run until January 1913.
- 23 October – First airplane flight in Paris by Parc de Bagatelle.
- 1907
- 22 February – First woman receives a license to drive a taxi in Paris.
- 25 March – The first traffic roundabout created in Paris at the Place de l'Étoile.
- Summer. Pablo Picasso, living in the Bateau-Lavoir in Montmartre, paints Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, a major turning point in modern art.
- The Kahnweiler art gallery opens.
- 1909
- 1 March – First escalator installed in a Paris Métro station.
- 29 May – Opening of the Luna Park amusement park at the Porte Maillot.
- 2 June – Paris première of the ballet Les Sylphides by Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes at the Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris, with Vaslav Nijinsky and Anna Pavlova in the leading roles.
- 13 December – Creation of first one-way streets in Paris on the Rue de Mogador and Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin.
- 1910
- January 21–28 – Great flood of Paris. The Seine rises 8.5 meters, the highest level since 1658, and overflows its banks. The flood affects one sixth of the buildings in Paris.[86]
- 13 February – Opening of the Vélodrome d'hivercycling stadium on the Rue de Grenelle.
- 3 December – First use of neon lights on the Grand Palais. The first neon advertising sign appears on the Boulevard Montmartrein 1912.
- Coco Chanel opens her first boutique, called Chanel Modes, at 21 Rue Cambon.[87]
- First Gauloises cigarettes go on sale.
- According to
- At the Salon d'Automne of 1910, held from 1 October to 8 November, Jean Metzinger introduces an extreme form of what would soon be labeled Cubism.[89]
- 1911
- 24 January – Departure of the first Paris-Monte Carlo automobile race.
- 22 August – The Mona Lisa is stolen from the Louvre. It is recovered in Florence in December 1913.[90]
- Gaumont-Palace cinema opens.
- Fictional Fantômas crime series begins publication.[91]
- The 1911 Salon des Indépendants officially introduces "Cubism" to the public as an organized group movement.
- 1912
- 15 February – Opening of the "Maison de Beauté" salon of Helena Rubenstein at 255 Rue Saint-Honoré.[90]
- 4 May – Criminal Brigade of the Sûreté formed to deal with major crimes and criminals.
- 1 June – First world tennis championship held at the Stade de la Faisanderie in Saint-Cloud.
- 29 May – Premiere of Nijinsky's ballet Afternoon of a Faun.
- The Cubist contribution to the 1912 Salon d'Automne creates a controversy in the Municipal Council of Paris leading to a debate in the French Chamber des Deputies about the use of public funds to provide the venue for such art. The Cubists are defended by the Socialist deputy Marcel Sembat.[92][93]
- 15 February – Opening of the "Maison de Beauté" salon of
- 1913
- 31 March – Opening of the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées.
- 29 May – Première of Stravinsky's ballet The Rite of Spring.[94]
- 1 October – First collection of trash by motorized trucks instead of handcarts.
- 24 December – First presidential Christmas tree, placed at Trocadéro, is lit by President Raymond Poincaré.
See also
References
Notes and citations
- ^ Héron de Villefosse, René, Histoire de Paris, Bernard Grasset, Paris, 1959, p. 380
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 204.
- ^ Héron de Villefosse 1959, pp. 381–382.
- ^ Héron de Villefosse, René, Histoire de Paris (1959), Bernard Grasset. p. 380-81
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 282.
- ^ Marchand 1993, p. 134.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 305.
- ^ Marchand 1993, p. 129.
- ^ Marchand 1993, p. 132.
- ^ Marchand 1993, p. 207.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 676.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 331.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 205.
- ^ Combeau 2013, pp. 72–73.
- ^ Jack Aldren Clarke, French Socialist Congress, 1876,1914, The Journal of Modern History, The University of Chicago Press, 1989.
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 631–634.
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 208–210.
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 899–1900.
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 895–896.
- ^ a b Fierro 1996, p. 637.
- ^ Dansette, A., Histoire religieuse de la France contemporaine, pp. 406-407. Cited in Fierro, 1196, p. 369
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 371–372.
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 372–373.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 381.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 386.
- ^ Marchand 1993, p. 126.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 777.
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 911–912.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 809.
- ^ "Coco Chanel & Cremerie de Paris, a Love Story".
- ISBN 978-1-58980-639-9.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 938.
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 900–901.
- ^ Fierro 1996, pp. 1165=1166.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 1032.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 1182.
- ^ a b Fierro 1996, pp. 993–994.
- ^ Sarmant 2012, p. 204.
- ^ a b Sarmant 2012, pp. 198–199.
- ^ Sarmant 2012, p. 202.
- ^ Marchand 1993, p. 169.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 1089.
- ^ a b c d Jarrassé 2007, pp. 162–183.
- ^ a b Du Camp, Maxime, Paris - ses organes, ses fonctions, et sa vie jusqu'en 1870, p. 596.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 838.
- ^ Weingardt 2009, p. 15.
- ^ Sutherland 2003, p. 37.
- ^ "Tour Eiffel, entre refus et fascination, 1899–1950" (PDF). www.lettresvolees.fr. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
- ^ John W. Stamper, "The Galerie des Machines of the 1889 Paris World's Fair." Technology and culture (1989): 330-353. In JSTOR
- ^ a b Fierro 1996, p. 863.
- ^ Philippe Jullian, The triumph of Art nouveau: Paris exhibition, 1900 (London: Phaidon, 1974)
- ^ Richard D. Mandell, Paris 1900: The great world's fair (1967).
- ^ a b Fierro 1996, p. 1138.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 632-634.
- ^ a b Petit Robert 1988, p. 1377.
- ^ "Anciens sénateurs IIIème République : HUGO Victor". www.senat.fr.
- ^ Petit Robert 1988, p. 1597.
- ^ Petit Robert 1988, p. 233.
- ^ Petit Robert 1988, p. 501.
- ^ Petit Robert 1988, p. 1622.
- ISBN 978-2-253-13140-3)
- ^ a b Petit Robert 1988, p. 1416.
- ^ Russell T. Clement, Four French Symbolists, Greenwood Press, 1996, p. 114.
- ^ Auguste Dalligny, 'Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts - l'Exposition du Champ de Mars', Journal des Arts, 16 May 1890
- ^ Paul Bluysen, 'Le Salon du Champ de Mars - IV, La République française, 23 June 1890
- ^ Petit Robert 1988, p. 1541.
- ^ Petit Robert 1988, p. 272.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 946.
- ^ a b Fierro 1996, p. 216.
- ^ a b c d Combeau 2013, p. 61.
- ^ "Mémoires de la Société de l'histoire de Paris et de l'Île-de-France" (in French). 1874. Archived from the original on 2015-05-05.
- ^ Fierro 1996, p. 627.
- ^ a b Fierro 1996, p. 628.
- ^ a b Fierro, Alfred, Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris p. 629
- ^ a b c Fierro, Alfred, Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris p. 630
- ^ a b Fierro, Alfred, Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris, p. 631.
- ^ "Luminous-Lint". www.luminous-lint.com.
- ^ 'Dictionnaire Historique de Paris (2013) p. 306
- ^ Fierro, Alfred, Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris, p. 632.
- ^ Fierro, Alfred, Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris, p. 633.
- ^ "France, 1900 A.D.–present: Key Events". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
- ^ Radio 3. "Opera Timeline". BBC. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Judith Goldsmith (ed.). "Timeline of the Counterculture". Retrieved 1 June 2014 – via The WELL.
- ^ Chilver, Ian (Ed.). "Fauvism" Archived 2011-11-09 at the Wayback Machine, The Oxford Dictionary of Art, Oxford University Press, 2004. Retrieved from enotes.com, 26 December 2007.
- ^ Truslove, Roland (1911). Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 805–822, see page 810.
Below is shown the population of the arrondissements separately (in 1906).....
. In - ISBN 978-0-8050-7786-5.
- ISBN 978-0-7134-8873-9. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Christopher Green, Cubism and its Enemies, Modern Movements and Reaction in French Art, 1916-28, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1987 p. 314, note 51
- ^ Robbins, Daniel (January 25, 1964). "Albert Gleizes, 1881-1953 : a retrospective exhibition". [New York : Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation] – via Internet Archive.
- ^ a b Fierro, Alfred, Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris, p. 637.
- ISBN 0-8014-7256-3.
- ^ Patrick F. Barrer: Quand l'art du XXe siècle était conçu par les inconnus, pp. 93-101, gives an account of the debate.
- ^ "biography". www.peterbrooke.org.uk.
- ISBN 978-0-300-08054-4.
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- Héron de Villefosse, René (1959). Histoire de Paris. Bernard Grasset.
- Jarrassé, Dominique (2007). Grammaire des Jardins Parisiens. Paris: Parigramme. ISBN 978-2-84096-476-6.
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- Sutherland, Cara (2003). The Statue of Liberty. Barnes & Noble Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7607-3890-0.
- Weingardt, Richard (2009). Circles in the Sky: The Life and Times of George Ferris. ASCE Publications. ISBN 978-0-7844-1010-3.
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- Petit Robert - Dictionnaire universal des noms propres. Le Robert. 1988.