Victor Hugo
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Born | Victor-Marie Hugo 26 February 1802 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Died | 22 May 1885 Paris, France | (aged 83)||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Resting place | Panthéon, Paris | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Literary movement | Romanticism | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Years active | 1829–1883 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Victor-Marie Hugo, vicomte Hugo[1] (French: [viktɔʁ maʁi yɡo] ; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French Romantic writer and politician. During a literary career that spanned more than sixty years, he wrote in a variety of genres and forms.
His most famous works are the novels The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1831) and Les Misérables (1862). In France, Hugo is renowned for his poetry collections, such as Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles (The Legend of the Ages). Hugo was at the forefront of the Romantic literary movement with his play Cromwell and drama Hernani. His works have inspired music, both during his lifetime and after his death, including the opera Rigoletto and the musicals Les Misérables and Notre-Dame de Paris. He produced more than 4,000 drawings in his lifetime, and campaigned for social causes such as the abolition of capital punishment and slavery.
Although he was a committed royalist when young, Hugo's views changed as the decades passed, and he became a passionate supporter of republicanism, serving in politics as both deputy and senator. His work touched upon most of the political and social issues and the artistic trends of his time. His opposition to absolutism, and his literary stature, established him as a national hero. Hugo died on 22 May 1885, aged 83. He was given a state funeral in the Panthéon of Paris, which was attended by over 2 million people, the largest in French history.[2]
Early life
Victor-Marie Hugo was born on 26 February 1802 in
Since Hugo's father was an officer in Napoleon's army, the family moved frequently from posting to posting. Léopold Hugo wrote to his son that he had been conceived on one of the highest peaks in the
In 1810, Hugo's father was made Count Hugo de Cogolludo y Sigüenza by then King of Spain Joseph Bonaparte,[9] though it seems that the Spanish title was not legally recognized in France. Hugo later titled himself as a viscount, and it was as "Vicomte Victor Hugo" that he was appointed a peer of France on 13 April 1845.[10][11]
Weary of the constant moving required by military life, Sophie separated temporarily from Léopold and settled in Paris in 1803 with her sons. There, she began seeing General Victor Fanneau de La Horie, Hugo's godfather, who had been a comrade of General Hugo's during the campaign in Vendee. In October 1807, the family rejoined Leopold, now Colonel Hugo, Governor of the province of Avellino. There, Hugo was taught mathematics by Giuseppe de Samuele Cagnazzi, elder brother of Italian scientist Luca de Samuele Cagnazzi.[12] Sophie found out that Leopold had been living in secret with an Englishwoman called Catherine Thomas.[13]
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Sophie Trébuchet, mother of Victor Hugo
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General Joseph-Leopold Hugo, father of Victor Hugo
Soon, Hugo's father was called to Spain to fight the Peninsular War. Madame Hugo and her children were sent back to Paris in 1808, where they moved to an old convent, 12 Impasse des Feuillantines, an isolated mansion in a deserted quarter of the left bank of the Seine. Hiding in a chapel at the back of the garden was de La Horie, who had conspired to restore the Bourbons and been condemned to death a few years earlier. He became a mentor to Hugo and his brothers.[14]
In 1811, the family joined their father in Spain. Hugo and his brothers were sent to school in Madrid at the Real Colegio de San Antonio de Abad while Sophie returned to Paris on her own, now officially separated from her husband. In 1812, as the Peninsular War was turning against France, de La Horie was arrested and executed. In February 1815, Hugo and Eugène were taken away from their mother and placed by their father in the Pension Cordier, a private boarding school in Paris, where Hugo and Eugène remained for three years while also attending lectures at Lycée Louis le Grand.[15]
On 10 July 1816, Hugo wrote in his diary: "I shall be
Career
Hugo published his first novel (Hans of Iceland, 1823) the year following his marriage, and his second three years later (Bug-Jargal, 1826). Between 1829 and 1840, he published five more volumes of poetry: Les Orientales, 1829; Les Feuilles d'automne, 1831; Les Chants du crépuscule , 1835; Les Voix intérieures, 1837; and Les Rayons et les Ombres, 1840. This cemented his reputation as one of the greatest elegiac and lyric poets of his time.
Like many young writers of his generation, Hugo was profoundly influenced by
The precocious passion and eloquence of Hugo's early work brought success and fame at an early age. His first collection of poetry (
Victor Hugo's first mature work of fiction was published in February 1829 by Charles Gosselin without the author's name and reflected the acute social conscience that would infuse his later work. Le Dernier jour d'un condamné (
Hugo became the figurehead of the Romantic literary movement with the plays Cromwell (1827) and Hernani (1830).
Hugo began planning a major novel about social misery and injustice as early as the 1830s, but a full 17 years were needed for Les Misérables to be realised and finally published in 1862. Hugo had previously used the departure of prisoners for the Bagne of Toulon in Le Dernier Jour d'un condamné. He went to Toulon to visit the Bagne in 1839 and took extensive notes, though he did not start writing the book until 1845. On one of the pages of his notes about the prison, he wrote in large block letters a possible name for his hero: "JEAN TRÉJEAN". When the book was finally written, Tréjean became Jean Valjean.[22]
Hugo was acutely aware of the quality of the novel, as evidenced in a letter he wrote to his publisher, Albert Lacroix, on 23 March 1862: "My conviction is that this book is going to be one of the peaks, if not the crowning point of my work."[23] Publication of Les Misérables went to the highest bidder. The Belgian publishing house Lacroix and Verboeckhoven undertook a marketing campaign unusual for the time, issuing press releases about the work a full six months before the launch. It also initially published only the first part of the novel ("Fantine"), which was launched simultaneously in major cities. Installments of the book sold out within hours and had an enormous impact on French society.
The critical establishment was generally hostile to the novel;
An apocryphal tale
The word used in Guernsey to refer to squid (pieuvre, also sometimes applied to octopus) was to enter the French language as a result of its use in the book. Hugo returned to political and social issues in his next novel, L'Homme Qui Rit (The Man Who Laughs), which was published in 1869 and painted a critical picture of the aristocracy. The novel was not as successful as his previous efforts, and Hugo himself began to comment on the growing distance between himself and literary contemporaries such as Flaubert and Émile Zola, whose realist and naturalist novels were now exceeding the popularity of his own work.
His last novel, Quatre-vingt-treize (Ninety-Three), published in 1874, dealt with a subject that Hugo had previously avoided: the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. Though Hugo's popularity was on the decline at the time of its publication, many now consider Ninety-Three to be a work on par with Hugo's better-known novels.
Political life and exile
After three unsuccessful attempts, Hugo was finally elected to the
On the nomination of King
In 1848, Hugo was elected to the National Assembly of the Second Republic as a conservative. In 1849, he broke with the conservatives when he gave a noted speech calling for the end of misery and poverty. Other speeches called for universal suffrage and free education for all children. Hugo's advocacy to abolish the death penalty was renowned internationally.[note 1]
When Louis Napoleon (
While in exile, Hugo published his famous political pamphlets against Napoleon III,
However, Víctor Hugo said in Les Misérables:[29]
The wretched moral character of Thénardier, the frustrated bourgeois, was hopeless; it was in America what it had been in Europe. Contact with a wicked man is sometimes enough to rot a good deed and cause something bad to come out of it. With Marius's money, Thénardier became a slave trader.
Like most of his contemporaries, Hugo justified colonialism in terms of a
This might partly explain why in spite of his deep interest and involvement in political matters he remained silent on the Algerian issue. He knew about the atrocities committed by the French Army during the French conquest of Algeria as evidenced by his diary[31] but he never denounced them publicly; however, in Les Misérables, Hugo wrote: "Algeria too harshly conquered, and, as in the case of India by the English, with more barbarism than civilization."[32]
After coming in contact with Victor Schœlcher, a writer who fought for the abolition of slavery and French colonialism in the Caribbean, he started strongly campaigning against slavery. In a letter to American abolitionist Maria Weston Chapman, on 6 July 1851, Hugo wrote: "Slavery in the United States! It is the duty of this republic to set such a bad example no longer.... The United States must renounce slavery, or they must renounce liberty."[33] In 1859, he wrote a letter asking the United States government, for the sake of their own reputation in the future, to spare abolitionist John Brown's life, Hugo justified Brown's actions by these words: "Assuredly, if insurrection is ever a sacred duty, it must be when it is directed against Slavery."[34] Hugo agreed to diffuse and sell one of his best known drawings, "Le Pendu", an homage to John Brown, so one could "keep alive in souls the memory of this liberator of our black brothers, of this heroic martyr John Brown, who died for Christ just as Christ.[35]
Only one slave on Earth is enough to dishonour the freedom of all men. So the abolition of slavery is, at this hour, the supreme goal of the thinkers.
— Victor Hugo, 17 January 1862, [36]
As a novelist, diarist, and member of Parliament, Victor Hugo fought a lifelong battle for the abolition of the death penalty. The Last Day of a Condemned Man published in 1829 analyses the pangs of a man awaiting execution; several entries in Things Seen (Choses vues), the diary he kept between 1830 and 1885, convey his firm condemnation of what he regarded as a barbaric sentence;[37] on 15 September 1848, seven months after the Revolution of 1848, he delivered a speech before the Assembly and concluded, "You have overthrown the throne. ... Now overthrow the scaffold."[38] His influence was credited in the removal of the death penalty from the constitutions of Geneva, Portugal, and Colombia.[39] He had also pleaded for Benito Juárez to spare the recently captured emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, but to no avail.[40]
Although Napoleon III granted an amnesty to all political exiles in 1859, Hugo declined, as it meant he would have to curtail his criticisms of the government. It was only after Napoleon III fell from power and the Third Republic was proclaimed that Hugo finally returned to his homeland in 1870, where he was promptly elected to the National Assembly and the Senate.
He was in Paris during the
During the Paris Commune—the revolutionary government that took power on 18 March 1871 and was toppled on 28 May—Victor Hugo was harshly critical of the atrocities committed on both sides. On 9 April, he wrote in his diary, "In short, this Commune is as idiotic as the National Assembly is ferocious. From both sides, folly."[42] Yet he made a point of offering his support to members of the Commune subjected to brutal repression. He had been in Brussels since 22 March 1871 when in the 27 May issue of the Belgian newspaper l’Indépendance Victor Hugo denounced the government's refusal to grant political asylum to the Communards threatened with imprisonment, banishment or execution.[43] This caused so much uproar that in the evening a mob of fifty to sixty men attempted to force their way into the writer's house shouting, "Death to Victor Hugo! Hang him! Death to the scoundrel!"[44]
Hugo, who said "A war between Europeans is a civil war,"
Because of his concern for the rights of artists and
Religious views
Hugo's religious views changed radically over the course of his life. In his youth and under the influence of his mother, he identified as a Catholic and professed respect for Church hierarchy and authority. From there he became a
After 1872, Hugo never lost his antipathy towards the Catholic Church. He felt the Church was indifferent to the plight of the working class under the oppression of the monarchy. Perhaps he also was upset by the frequency with which his work appeared on the Church's list of banned books. Hugo counted 740 attacks on Les Misérables in the Catholic press.[51] When Hugo's sons Charles and François-Victor died, he insisted that they be buried without a crucifix or priest. In his will, he made the same stipulation about his own death and funeral.[52]
Yet he believed in life after death and prayed every single morning and night, convinced as he wrote in The Man Who Laughs that "Thanksgiving has wings and flies to its right destination. Your prayer knows its way better than you do."[53]
Hugo's
Vincent van Gogh ascribed the saying "Religions pass away, but God remains," actually by Jules Michelet, to Hugo.[55]
Relationship with music
Although Hugo's many talents did not include exceptional musical ability, he nevertheless had a great impact on the music world through the inspiration that his works provided for composers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Hugo himself particularly enjoyed the music of Gluck, Mozart, Weber and Meyerbeer. In Les Misérables, he calls the huntsman's chorus in Weber's Euryanthe, "perhaps the most beautiful piece of music ever composed".[56] He also greatly admired Beethoven and, rather unusually for his time, appreciated works by composers from earlier centuries such as Palestrina and Monteverdi.[57]
Two famous musicians of the 19th century were friends of Hugo:
On the other hand, he had low esteem for Richard Wagner, whom he described as "a man of talent coupled with imbecility."[60]
Well over one thousand musical compositions have been inspired by Hugo's works from the 19th century until the present day. In particular, Hugo's plays, in which he rejected the rules of classical theatre in favour of romantic drama, attracted the interest of many composers who adapted them into operas. More than one hundred operas are based on Hugo's works and among them are Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia (1833), Verdi's Rigoletto (1851) and Ernani (1844), and Ponchielli's La Gioconda (1876).[61]
Hugo's novels, as well as his plays, have been a great source of inspiration for musicians, stirring them to create not only opera and ballet but musical theatre such as Notre-Dame de Paris and the ever-popular Les Misérables, London West End's longest running musical. Additionally, Hugo's poems have attracted an exceptional amount of interest from musicians, and numerous melodies have been based on his poetry by composers such as Berlioz, Bizet, Fauré, Franck, Lalo, Liszt, Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Rachmaninoff, and Wagner.[61]
Today, Hugo's work continues to stimulate musicians to create new compositions. For example, Hugo's novel against capital punishment, The Last Day of a Condemned Man, was adapted into an opera by David Alagna, with a libretto by Frédérico Alagna and premièred by their brother, tenor Roberto Alagna, in 2007.[62] In Guernsey, every two years, the Victor Hugo International Music Festival attracts a wide range of musicians and the premiere of songs specially commissioned from such composers as Guillaume Connesson, Richard Dubugnon, Olivier Kaspar, and Thierry Escaich and based on Hugo's poetry.
Remarkably, not only has Hugo's literary production been the source of inspiration for musical works, but also his political writings have received attention from musicians and have been adapted to music. For instance, in 2009, Italian composer Matteo Sommacal was commissioned by Festival "Bagliori d'autore" and wrote a piece for speaker and chamber ensemble entitled Actes et paroles, with a text elaborated by Chiara Piola Caselli after Victor Hugo's last political speech addressed to the Assemblée législative, "Sur la Revision de la Constitution" (18 July 1851),[63] and premiered in Rome on 19 November 2009, in the auditorium of the Institut français, Centre Saint-Louis, French Embassy to the Holy See, by Piccola Accademia degli Specchi featuring the composer Matthias Kadar .[64]
Declining years and death
When Hugo returned to Paris in 1870, the country hailed him as a national hero. He was confident that he would be offered the dictatorship, as shown by the notes he kept at the time: "Dictatorship is a crime. This is a crime I am going to commit," but he felt he had to assume that responsibility.[65] Despite his popularity, Hugo lost his bid for re-election to the National Assembly in 1872.
Throughout his life Hugo kept believing in unstoppable humanistic progress. In his last public address on 3 August 1879 he prophesied, in an over-optimistic way, "In the twentieth century war will be dead, the scaffold will be dead, hatred will be dead, frontier boundaries will be dead, dogmas will be dead; man will live."[66]
Within a brief period, he suffered a mild stroke, his daughter Adèle was interned in an
His faithful mistress, Juliette Drouet, died in 1883, only two years before his own death. Despite his personal loss, Hugo remained committed to the cause of political change. On 30 January 1876, he was elected to the newly created Senate. This last phase of his political career was considered a failure. Hugo was a maverick and achieved little in the Senate. He suffered a mild stroke on 27 June 1878.[67][68] To honour the fact that he was entering his 80th year, he received one of the greatest tributes to a living writer ever held. The celebrations began on 25 June 1881, when Hugo was presented with a Sèvres vase, the traditional gift for sovereigns. On 27 June, one of the largest parades in French history was held.
Marchers stretched from the Avenue d'Eylau, where the author was living, down the Champs-Élysées, and all the way to the centre of Paris. The paraders marched for six hours past Hugo as he sat at the window at his house. Every inch and detail of the event was for Hugo; the official guides even wore cornflowers as an allusion to Fantine's song in Les Misérables. On 28 June, the city of Paris changed the name of the Avenue d'Eylau to Avenue Victor-Hugo.[69] Letters addressed to the author were from then on labelled "To Mister Victor Hugo, In his avenue, Paris". Two days before dying, he left a note with these last words: "To love is to act."
On 20 May 1885,
Hugo died on May 22, 1885, at 50 Avenue Victor Hugo (now number 124). His death, from pneumonia, generated intense national mourning. He was not only revered as a towering figure in literature, he was a statesman who shaped the Third Republic and democracy in France. All his life he remained a defender of liberty, equality and fraternity as well as an adamant champion of French culture. In 1877, aged 75, he wrote, "I am not one of these sweet-tempered old men. I am still exasperated and violent. I shout and I feel indignant and I cry. Woe to anyone who harms France! I do declare I will die a fanatic patriot."[71]
Although he had requested a pauper's funeral, by decree of President
Hugo left five sentences as his last will, to be officially published:
Je donne cinquante mille francs aux pauvres. Je veux être enterré dans leur corbillard.
Je refuse l'oraison de toutes les Églises. Je demande une prière à toutes les âmes.
Je crois en Dieu.
I leave 50,000 francs to the poor. I wish to be buried in their hearse.
I refuse [funeral] orations from all Churches. I ask [for] a prayer to all souls.
I believe in God.
Drawings
Hugo produced more than 4,000 drawings, with about 3,000 drawings still in existence. Originally pursued as a casual hobby, drawing became more important to Hugo shortly before his exile when he made the decision to stop writing to devote himself to politics. Drawing became his exclusive creative outlet between 1848 and 1851.[73][74]
Hugo worked only on paper, and on a small scale; usually in dark brown or black
Personal life
Family
Marriage
Hugo married Adèle Foucher in October 1822. Despite their respective affairs, they lived together for nearly 46 years until she died in August 1868. Hugo, who was still banished from France, was unable to attend her funeral in Villequier, where their daughter Léopoldine was buried. From 1830 to 1837, Adèle had an affair with Charles-Augustin Sainte Beuve, a reviewer and writer.[76]
Children
Adèle and Victor Hugo had their first child, Léopold, in 1823, but the boy died in infancy. On 28 August 1824, the couple's second child, Léopoldine, was born, followed by Charles on 4 November 1826, François-Victor on 28 October 1828, and Adèle on 28 July 1830.
Hugo's eldest and favourite daughter, Léopoldine, died in 1843 at the age of 19, shortly after her marriage to Charles Vacquerie. On 4 September, she drowned in the Seine at Villequier when the boat she was in overturned. Her young husband died trying to save her. The death left her father devastated; Hugo was travelling at the time, in the south of France, when he first learned about Léopoldine's death from a newspaper that he read in a café.[77]
He describes his shock and grief in his famous poem "À Villequier":
Hélas ! vers le passé tournant un œil d'envie, |
Alas! My envious eye, turning toward the past, |
He wrote many poems afterward about his daughter's life and death. His most famous poem is "Demain, dès l'aube" (Tomorrow, at Dawn), in which he describes visiting her grave.
Exile
Hugo decided to live in exile after
Other relationships
Juliette Drouet
From February 1833 until her death in 1883, Juliette Drouet devoted her whole life to Victor Hugo, who never married her even after his wife died in 1868. He took her on his numerous trips and she followed him in exile on Guernsey.[78] There Hugo rented a house for her near Hauteville House, his family home. She wrote some 20,000 letters in which she expressed her passion or vented her jealousy on her womanizing lover.[79] On 25 September 1870 during the
"J.D. She saved my life in December 1851. For me she underwent exile. Never has her soul forsaken mine. Let those who have loved me love her. Let those who have loved me respect her. She is my widow." V.H.[80]
Léonie d’Aunet
For more than seven years, Léonie d’Aunet, who was a married woman, was involved in a love relationship with Hugo. Both were caught in adultery on 5 July 1845. Hugo, who had been a Member of the Chamber of Peers since April, avoided condemnation whereas his mistress had to spend two months in prison and six in a convent. Many years after their separation, Hugo made a point of supporting her financially.[81]
Others
Hugo gave free rein to his sensuality until a few weeks before his death. He sought a wide variety of women of all ages, be they courtesans, actresses, prostitutes, admirers, servants or revolutionaries like Louise Michel for sexual activity. Both a graphomaniac and erotomaniac, he systematically reported his casual affairs using his own code, as Samuel Pepys did, to make sure they would remain secret. For instance, he resorted to Latin abbreviations (osc. for kisses) or to Spanish (Misma. Mismas cosas: The same. Same things). Homophones are frequent: Seins (Breasts) becomes Saint; Poële (Stove) actually refers to Poils (Pubic hair). Analogy also enabled him to conceal the real meaning: A woman's Suisses (Swiss) are her breasts—because Switzerland is renowned for its milk. After a rendezvous with a young woman named Laetitia he would write Joie (Happiness) in his diary. If he added t.n. (toute nue) he meant she stripped naked in front of him. The initials S.B. discovered in November 1875 may refer to Sarah Bernhardt.[82]
Nicknames
Victor Hugo acquired several nicknames. The first one originated from his own description of Shakespeare in the introduction to his eponymous work. In this introduction to William Shakespeare (essay), he tried to delve into what constituted the genius of certain artists and described Shakespeare as an "Ocean Man":[83][84][85]
There were indeed ocean men.
[...] all of this could exist within a mind, and then that mind is called genius, and you have Aeschylus, you have Isaiah, you have Juvenal, you have Dante, you have Michelangelo, you have Shakespeare, and it is the same thing to gaze upon these souls or to gaze upon the Ocean.
During his lifetime and in the 1870s, the expression to describe him entered popular culture.[86][87] It was later adopted by authors and literary critics, including Joseph Serre, who identified it with an expression he himself coined.[88][89] This nickname became widespread during the 20th century and was used by the National Library of France when organizing an exhibition about him.[83] Since then, it has been frequently used in research and literary critics.[90][91][92][93] Alongside "Ocean Man," the nickname "Horizon Man" was sometimes used during Hugo's lifetime as well.[86] Finally, researchers and literary critics, such as Henri Meschonnic, proposed the nickname "Century Man" to refer to Victor Hugo.[94]
Gallery
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Ville avec le pont de Tumbledown, ("Town with Tumbledown Bridge"), 1847.
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Pieuvre avec les initiales V.H., ("Octopus with the initials V.H."), 1866.
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Le Rocher de l'Ermitage dans un paysage imaginaire ("Ermitage Rock in an imaginary landscape")
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Le phare ("The Lighthouse")
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Gavroche à onze ans ("Gavroche at eleven years old").
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Victor Hugo with his son François-Victor by Auguste de Châtillon, 1836.
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Marble bust of Victor Hugo by Auguste Rodin
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Victor Hugo by Charles Hugo c. 1853
Memorials
His legacy has been honored in many ways, including his portrait being placed on French currency.
The people of Guernsey erected a statue by sculptor Jean Boucher in Candie Gardens (Saint Peter Port) to commemorate his stay in the islands. The City of Paris has preserved his residences Hauteville House, Guernsey, and 6, Place des Vosges, Paris, as museums. The house where he stayed in Vianden, Luxembourg, in 1871 has also become a commemorative museum.
The
In the city of Avellino, Italy, Victor Hugo briefly stayed in what is now known as Il Palazzo Culturale when reuniting with his father, Leopold Sigisbert Hugo, in 1808. Hugo would later write about his brief stay here, quoting "C'était un palais de marbre..." ("It was a palace of marble").
There is a statue of Hugo across from the Museo Carlo Bilotti in Rome, Italy.
Victor Hugo is the namesake of the city of Hugoton, Kansas.[96]
In Havana, Cuba, there is a park named after him.
A bust of Hugo stands near the entrance of the Old Summer Palace in Beijing.
A mosaic commemorating Hugo is located on the ceiling of the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress.
The London and North Western Railway named a 'Prince of Wales' Class 4-6-0 No 1134 after Hugo. British Railways perpetuated this memorial, naming Class 92 Electric Unit 92001 after him.
A crater on the planet Mercury is named after him.
Works
Prose fiction
- Hans of Iceland (Han d'Islande – novella - 1820, novel - 1823, revised until 1833)
- Bug-Jargal (short story – 1820, novel – 1826)
- The Last Day of a Condemned Man (Le Dernier jour d'un condamné – 1829) - prototype for Les Misérables
- The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (Notre-Dame de Paris – 1831, definitive unabridged edition: 1832)
- La Esmeralda (the only libretto of an opera written by Victor Hugo himself) (1836) – the ending was altered for the play
- Claude Gueux (1834) - prototype for Les Misérables
- The Rhine (Le Rhin – 1842) - also contains essays and a political manifesto
- The Poor People (1854) - short story included in La Légende des siècles, later rewritten or retold by Leo Tolstoy in Russian (1908)
- Les Misérables (1862) - mega-novel, initially begun as Les Misères. 7 chapters from Book 7 of Part 3 were excised by Albert Lacroix at the time of publication. None of the English translations include the excised chapters but some French editions include them as Appendix or in Notes.
- Les Misères (1845-48) - 2 draft versions of Les Misérables - not yet translated into English but available online in French
- Toilers of the Sea (Les Travailleurs de la Mer – 1866)
- The Man Who Laughs ( L'Homme qui rit – 1869)
- Ninety-Three (Quatrevingt-treize – 1874)
Other works published during Hugo's lifetime
- Cromwell, preface only (1819)
- Odes et poésies diverses(1822)
- Odes (1823)
- Nouvelles Odes(1824)
- Odes et Ballades (1826)
- Cromwell (1827)
- Les Orientales (1829)
- Hernani (1830)
- Marion de Lorme (1831)
- Les Feuilles d'automne (Autumn Leaves; 1831)
- Le roi s'amuse (1832)
- Lucrezia Borgia (1833)
- Marie Tudor (1833)
- Littérature et philosophie mêlées (A Blend of Literature and Philosophy; 1834)
- Angelo, Tyrant of Padua (1835)
- Les Chants du crépuscule (Songs of the Half Light; 1835)
- Les Voix intérieures (1837)
- Ruy Blas (1838)
- Les Rayons et les Ombres (1840)
- Les Burgraves (1843)
- Napoléon le Petit (Napoleon the Little; 1852)
- Les Châtiments (1853)
- Les Contemplations (The Contemplations; 1856)
- Les TRYNE (1856)
- La Légende des siècles (The Legend of the Ages; 1859)
- William Shakespeare (1864)
- Les Chansons des rues et des bois (Songs of Street and Wood; 1865)
- La voix de Guernsey (1867)
- L'Année terrible (1872)
- Mes Fils (1874)
- Actes et paroles – Avant l'exil(1875)
- Actes et paroles – Pendant l'exil (Deeds and Words; 1875)
- Actes et paroles – Depuis l'exil (1876)
- La Légende des Siècles 2e série (1877)
- L'Art d'être grand-père (The Art of Being a Grandfather; 1877)
- Histoire d'un crime1re partie (History of a Crime; 1877)
- Histoire d'un crime 2e partie (1878)
- Le Pape (1878)
- La Pitié suprême (1879)
- Religions et religion (Religions and Religion; 1880)
- L'Âne (1880)
- Les Quatres vents de l'esprit (The Four Winds of the Spirit; 1881)
- Torquemada (1882)
- La Légende des siècles Tome III (1883)
- L'Archipel de la Manche (1883)
Published posthumously
- Théâtre en liberté (1886)
- La Fin de Satan (1886)
- Choses vues (1887)
- Toute la lyre (1888), (The Whole Lyre)
- Amy Robsart (1889)
- Les Jumeaux (1889)
- Actes et Paroles – Depuis l'exil, 1876–1885 (1889)
- Alpes et Pyrénées (1890), (Alps and Pyrenees)
- Dieu (1891)
- France et Belgique (1892)
- Toute la lyre – dernière série (1893)
- Les fromages (1895)
- Correspondences – Tome I (1896)
- Correspondences – Tome II (1898)
- Les années funestes (1898)
- Choses vues – nouvelle série (1900)
- Post-scriptum de ma vie (1901)
- Dernière Gerbe (1902)
- Mille francs de récompense (1934)
- Océan. Tas de pierres (1942)
- L'Intervention (1951)
- Conversations with Eternity (1998)
Notes
References
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- ^ Behrent, Megan (May 2013). "The enduring relevance of Victor Hugo". International Socialist Review (89). Retrieved 15 February 2015.
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- ^ "The Andover Review". Houghton, Mifflin and Company. 1886.
- ^ "The Home and foreign review [formerly the Rambler]". 1863.
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- ^ Escholier, Raymond, Victor Hugo raconté par ceux qui l'ont vu, Librairie Stock, 1931, p. 11.
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- ^ d'Hauterive, A.F.B. (1845). Annuaire de la pairie et de la noblesse de France et des maisons souveraines de l'Europe et de la diplomatie (in French). Bureau de la Pub.
- ^ Biré, Edmond (1891). Victor Hugo après 1830, Vol II. Paris: Perrin. p. 73.
- ^ Pairs de France, Nat (4 August 2023). "Pairs de France : HUGO Marie-Victor, vicomte Hugo". Accueil – Sénat (in French).
- ^ Vicenti, p. 46
- ISBN 978-1-78914-111-5.
- ^ Caussé, E. (January 0101). Victor Hugo – Tout pour briller en société (in French). Les Éditions de l'Ebook malin. p. 4.[permanent dead link]
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- ^ King, E. (1878). French Political Leaders. Brief biographies of European public men. G.P. Putnam's sons. p. 15.
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- ^ Pearson, Roger. Unacknowledged Legislators: The Poet as Lawgiver in Post-Revolutionary France. Oxford University Press, 2016. p.138
- ^ Hugo, Victor (1862). Les Miserablé.
- ^ State Library of Victoria. "Victor Hugo: Les Misérables – From Page to Stage research guide". Archived from the original on 14 July 2014.
- ^ Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre. Eight Edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1999. p. 339.
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- ^ "Les Misérables de Victor Hugo". alalettre.com. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
- ^ Garson O'Toole, "Briefest Correspondence: Question Mark? Exclamation Mark!" (14 June 2014).
- ^ Norris McWhirter (1981). Guinness Book of World Records: 1981 Edition. Bantam Books, p. 216.
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- ISBN 978-2-84049-556-7)
- State Library of Victoria.
- ^ Gallego Urrutia, María Teresa (2013). Los miserables (in European Spanish) (orhi ed.). Madrid: Biblioteca de Traductores. p. 1784.(From castilian in the original Maria Teresa Gallego Urrutia' translation
- ^ In God's Empire French Missionaries and the Modern World. Oxford University Press. 2012. p. 62.
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- ^ Hugo & American Anti-Slavery Society 1860, p. 7.
- ^ l'Esclavage.
- ^ Herrington 2005, p. 131.
- ^ Langellier 2014, p. 117.
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- ^ Hugo, Victor (15 September 1848). "Speech on the death penalty". Wikisource.org. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
- ^ "Victor Hugo, l'homme océan". Bibliothèque nationale de France. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
- ^ "Benito Juarez Life and History – Mexico Living". 21 September 2022. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
- ^ "Victor Hugo's diary tells how Parisians dined on zoo animals". The Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. 7 February 1915. p. 3.
- ISBN 2-07-036141-1, p. 164
- ^ Hugo, Victor (1 January 1872). Actes et paroles: 1870–1871–1872. Michel Lévy frères. Retrieved 3 April 2017 – via Internet Archive.
l'indépendance.
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- ISBN 2-07-036141-1, p. 258.
- ^ Peace Congress, 2d, Paris, 1849. Report of the proceedings of the second general Peace Congress, held in Paris on the 22nd, 23rd, and 24 August 1849. Compiled from authentic documents under the superintendence of the Peace Congress Committee. London, Charles Gilpin, 1849
- ^ Efron, Reuben; Nanes, Allan S. (October 1969). "The Genesis of European Unity". Social Science. 44 (4): 215.
- ^ Malgras, J. (1906). Les Pionniers du Spiritisme en France: Documents pour la formation d'un livre d'Or des Sciences Psychiques. Paris.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Chez Victor Hugo. Les tables tournantes de Jersey. Extracts from meeting minutes published by Gustave Simon in 1923
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- ISBN 9780393318999.
- ISBN 9781101140499.
- ISBN 978-1495441936, p. 132
- ^ "Horror, Abuse Scandals, and The Hunchback of Notre Dame".
- ^ "Vincent van Gogh to Theo van Gogh. The Hague, between about Wednesday, 13 & about Monday, 18 December 1882". Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
- ^ Hugo, V., Les misérables, Volume 2, Penguin Books, 1 December 1980, p. 103.
- ^ a b "Hugo à l'Opéra", ed. Arnaud Laster, L'Avant-Scène Opéra, no. 208 (2002).
- ^ Cette page use des cadres Archived 8 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
- ^ "Mercredi 23 juillet – 20h – Opéra Berlioz / Le Corum". Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 13 April 2008.
- ISBN 2-07-036141-1
- ^ a b "Hugo et la musique" in Pleins feux sur Victor Hugo, Arnaud Laster, Comédie-Française (1981)
- ^ "Festival Victor Hugo & Egaux 2008". Archived from the original on 29 April 2008.
- ^ V. Hugo, Actes et paroles: Avant l'exile, 1875, Discours à l’Assemblée législative 1849–1851, J. Hetzel, Maison Quantin, Paris, 1875
- ^ C. Pulsoni, "L'orazione di Victor Hugo trasformata in musica", Il Corriere dell'Umbria, Vivere d'Umbria, Perugia (IT), 19 November 2009
- ^ Hugo Victor, Choses vues, 1870–1885, Gallimard, 1972, 2-07-036141-1, p. 257.
- ISBN 9782368413029. Retrieved 3 April 2017 – via Google Books.
- ^ Robb, Graham Victor Hugo (1997) p. 506.
- ^ Liukkonen, Petri. "Victor Hugo". Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014.
- ^ Acte de décès de Victor Hugo Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Le Petit journal". Gallica. 21 May 1885. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
- ISBN 2-07-036141-1, p. 411.
- ISBN 978-0-19-953707-5.
- ^ "Victor Hugo's Drawings | Maisons Victor Hugo". www.maisonsvictorhugo.paris.fr. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
- ^ Schindel, Daniel (20 September 2018). "Victor Hugo's Hidden Drawings: Was the 'Les Mis' Author Also One of the Greatest Artists of His Time?". Observer Media. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
- ^ Prodger, Michael (12 January 2022). "The sinister art of Victor Hugo". Retrieved 29 June 2023.
- ^
Foucher-Hugo Adèle, Victor Hugo raconté par Adèle Hugo, Plon, 1985, 861 p., ISBN 2259012884, p. 41.
- ^ Victor Hugo, tome 1: Je suis une force qui va by Max Gallo, pub. Broché (2001)
- ^ "Victor Hugo's House in Pasaia – European Romanticisms in Association". 23 April 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
- ISBN 2020000016, p. 55
- ISBN 2221010442, p. 10.
- ISBN 2070402177, p. 857 (17 Sep 1876)
- ISBN 2070361411, pp. 371, 521 (n. 1).
- ^ a b "BnF - Victor Hugo, l'homme océan". expositions.bnf.fr. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
- ^ Hugo, Victor (1864), William Shakespeare, Paris: A. Lacroix, Verboeckhoven et Cie, éditeurs, pp. v–46, retrieved 28 November 2023
- ISBN 978-2-7177-2201-7.
- ^ a b "Le Gaulois : littéraire et politique". Gallica. 19 August 1874. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
- ^ "Le Gaulois : littéraire et politique". Gallica. 21 September 1874. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
- ^ Serre, Joseph (1860-1937) Auteur du texte (1890). Au large ! / par Joseph Serre.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ texte, Compagnie de Jésus Auteur du (1 May 1894). "Etudes religieuses, historiques et littéraires / par des Pères de la Compagnie de Jésus". Gallica. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
- ^ Braud, Brigitte (1 January 2014). L' écriture des émotions dans l'Homme qui rit de Victor Hugo et ses lectures : illustrations, parodies, adaptations (These de doctorat thesis). Paris 7.
- ^ François-Denève, Corinne (31 May 2021). "Victor Hugo: la jeunesse d'un poète". U-bourgogne (in French).
- ISSN 0039-2944.
- .
- ^ texte, Académie du Var Auteur du (2002). "Bulletin de l'Académie du Var". Gallica. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
- ^ The Chronicle 12 April 1987 p.6
- ^ Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. United States Government Publishing Office. pp. 163.
- ^ "Caodaism: A Vietnamese-centred religion". Retrieved 8 May 2009.
- ^ Milner, Richard (23 April 2023). "Why Does The Vietnamese Religion Cao Dai Revere Victor Hugo?". Grunge. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
- ^ University, © Stanford; Stanford; California 94305 (8 May 2013). "Jesus, Lenin, and Victor Hugo: The "Outrageous" Syncretism of Caodai". aparc.fsi.stanford.edu. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Cao Dai | Syncretic faith, Divine Eye, Divine Path | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
Its pantheon of saints includes such diverse figures as the Buddha, Confucius, Jesus Christ, Muḥammad, Pericles, Julius Caesar, Joan of Arc, Victor Hugo, and Sun Yat-sen.
Sources
- Hugo, V.; American Anti-Slavery Society (1860). Letters on American Slavery from Victor Hugo, de Tocqueville, Emile de Girardin, Carnot, Passy, Mazzini, Humboldt, O. Lafayette—etc. HeinOnline: Slavery in America and the world: history, culture & law. American Anti-Slavery Society.
- Herrington, E. (2005). The Afterlife of John Brown. Palgrave Macmillan US. ISBN 978-1-4039-7846-2.
- Langellier, J.P. (2014). Dictionnaire Victor Hugo. Dictionnaires-Atlas-Encyclopédies (in French). Place des éditeurs. ISBN 978-2-262-04938-6.
- l'Esclavage, Mémoires des abolitions de. "History". Road of Abolitions.
- Vincenzo Vicenti (1998). Arcangela Vicenti e Giuseppe Pupillo (ed.). Medaglioni altamurani del 1799. Cassano delle Murge: Messaggi. pp. 45–46.
Further reading
- Afran, Charles (1997). "Victor Hugo: French Dramatist". Website: Discover France. (Originally published in Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1997, v.9.0.1.) Retrieved November 2005.
- Barbou, Alfred (1882). Victor Hugo and His Times. University Press of the Pacific: 2001 paperback edition. ISBN 0-89875-478-X
- Barnett, Marva A., ed. (2009). Victor Hugo on Things That Matter: A Reader. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-12245-4
- Bates, Alfred (1906). "Victor Hugo". Website: Theatre History. (Originally published in The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 9. ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 11–13.) Retrieved November 2005.
- Bates, Alfred (1906). "Hernani". Website: Theatre History. (Originally published in The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 9. ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 20–23.) Retrieved November 2005.
- Bates, Alfred (1906). "Hugo's Cromwell". Website: Theatre History. (Originally published in The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 9. ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 18–19.) Retrieved November 2005.
- Bittleston, Misha. "Drawings of Victor Hugo". Website: Misha Bittleston. Retrieved November 2005.
- Brombert, Victor H. (1984). Victor Hugo and the Visionary Novel. Boston: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-93550-0
- Burnham, I.G. (1896). "Amy Robsart". Website: Theatre History. (Originally published in Victor Hugo: Dramas. Philadelphia: The Rittenhouse Press, 1896. pp. 203–06, 401–02.) Retrieved November 2005.
- Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Edition (2001–05). "Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicomte". Website: Bartleby, Great Books Online. Retrieved November 2005. Retrieved November 2005.
- Davidson, A.F. (1912). Victor Hugo: His Life and Work. University Press of the Pacific: 2003 paperback edition. ISBN 1-4102-0778-1
- Dow, Leslie Smith (1993). Adele Hugo: La Miserable. Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions. ISBN 0-86492-168-3
- Falkayn, David (2001). Guide to the Life, Times, and Works of Victor Hugo. University Press of the Pacific. ISBN 0-89875-465-8
- Feller, Martin (1988). Der Dichter in der Politik. Victor Hugo und der Deutsch-Französische Krieg von 1870/71. Untersuchungen zum französischen Deutschlandbild und zu Hugos Rezeption in Deutschland. Marburg: Doctoral Dissertation.
- Frey, John Andrew (1999). A Victor Hugo Encyclopedia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29896-3
- Grant, Elliot (1946). The Career of Victor Hugo. Harvard University Press. Out of print.
- Haine, W. Scott (1997). "Victor Hugo". Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions. Website: Ohio University. Retrieved November 2005.
- Halsall, A.W. et al. (1998). Victor Hugo and the Romantic Drama. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-4322-4
- Hart, Simon Allen (2004). Lady in the Shadows: The Life and Times of Julie Drouet, Mistress, Companion and Muse to Victor Hugo. Publish American. ISBN 1-4137-1133-2
- Houston, John Porter (1975). Victor Hugo. New York: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0-8057-2443-5
- Hovasse, Jean-Marc (2001), Victor Hugo: Avant l'exil. Paris: Fayard. ISBN 2-213-61094-0
- Hovasse, Jean-Marc (2008), Victor Hugo: Pendant l'exil I. Paris: Fayard. ISBN 2-213-62078-4
- Ireson, J.C. (1997). Victor Hugo: A Companion to His Poetry. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815799-1
- Karlins, N.F. (1998). "Octopus With the Initials V.H." Website: ArtNet. Retrieved November 2005.
- Liukkonen, Petri (2000). Petri Liukkonen. "Victor Hugo". Books and Writers.
- Maurois, Andre (1956). Olympio: The Life of Victor Hugo. New York: Harper & Brothers.
- Maurois, Andre (1966). Victor Hugo and His World. London: Thames and Hudson. Out of print.
- Meyer, Ronald Bruce (2004). Victor Hugo at the Wayback Machine (archived 8 May 2006). Website: Ronald Bruce Meyer. Retrieved November 2005.
- O'Neill, J, ed. (2000). Romanticism & the school of nature : nineteenth-century drawings and paintings from the Karen B. Cohen collection. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. (contains information on Hugo's drawings)
- Portasio, Manoel (2009). "Victor Hugo e o Espiritismo". Website: Sir William Crookes Spiritist Society. (Portuguese) Retrieved August 2010.
- Richardson, Joanna (1976). Victor Hugo. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
- Robb, Graham (1997). "A Sabre in the Night". Website: The New York Times (Books). (Excerpt from Graham, Robb (1997). Victor Hugo: A Biography. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.) Retrieved November 2005.
- Robb, Graham (1997). Victor Hugo: A Biography. W.W. Norton & Company: 1999 paperback edition. )
- Roche, Isabel (2005). "Victor Hugo: Biography". Meet the Writers. Website: Barnes & Noble. (From the Barnes & Noble Classics edition of The Hunchback of Notre Dame, 2005.) Retrieved November 2005.
- Schneider, Maria do Carmo M (2010). http://www.miniweb.com.br/Literatura/Artigos/imagens/victor_hugo/face_oculta.pdf Archived 29 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Website: MiniWeb Educacao. (Portuguese) Retrieved August 2010.
- State Library of Victoria (2014). "Victor Hugo: Les Misérables – From Page to Stage". Website: Retrieved July 2014.
- Uncited author. "Victor Hugo". Website: Spartacus Educational. Retrieved November 2005.
- Uncited author. "Timeline of Victor Hugo". Website: BBC. Retrieved November 2005.
- Uncited author. (2000–2005). "Victor Hugo". Website: The Literature Network. Retrieved November 2005.
External links
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. (June 2021) |
- Two poems by Victor Hugo, Cordite Poetry Review
- France of Victor Hugo Archived 29 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- Guernsey's official Victor Hugo website
- Victor Hugo Central
- Les Misérables at CliffsNotes.com
- Victor Hugo le dessinateur
- Official site of the Société des Amis de Victor Hugo
- Official site of the Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux
- Victor Hugo at the Internet Book List
- Victor Hugo Collection at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library
- Victor Hugo Collection at the John Rylands Library, Manchester
Online works
- Works by Victor Hugo in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
- Works by Victor Hugo at Project Gutenberg
- Works by Victor Hugo at Faded Page (Canada)
- Works by or about Victor Hugo at the Internet Archive
- Works by Victor Hugo at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by Victor Hugo at Open Library
- Translation of Victor Hugo note found in Hunchback of Notre Dame, french edition Archived 28 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- Les Voix intérieures – at athena.unige.ch (in French)
- The Century Was Two Years Old : Victor Hugo The Lilly Library, Bloomington IN