Pharming (genetics)
Pharming, a
The products of pharming are recombinant proteins or their metabolic products. Recombinant proteins are most commonly produced using bacteria or yeast in a bioreactor, but pharming offers the advantage to the producer that it does not require expensive infrastructure, and production capacity can be quickly scaled to meet demand, at greatly reduced cost.[5]
History
The first recombinant plant-derived protein (PDP) was human serum albumin, initially produced in 1990 in transgenic tobacco and potato plants.[6] Open field growing trials of these crops began in the United States in 1992 and have taken place every year since. While the United States Department of Agriculture has approved planting of pharma crops in every state, most testing has taken place in Hawaii, Nebraska, Iowa, and Wisconsin.[7]
In the early 2000s, the pharming industry was robust. Proof of concept has been established for the production of many
However, in late 2002, just as ProdiGene was ramping up production of trypsin for commercial launch
The industry has slowly recovered, by focusing on pharming in simple plants grown in
In mammals
Historical development
Milk is presently the most mature system to produce recombinant proteins from transgenic organisms. Blood, egg white, seminal plasma, and urine are other theoretically possible systems, but all have drawbacks. Blood, for instance, as of 2012 cannot store high levels of stable recombinant proteins, and biologically active proteins in blood may alter the health of the animals.[16] Expression in the milk of a mammal, such as a cow, sheep, or goat, is a common application, as milk production is plentiful and purification from milk is relatively easy. Hamsters and rabbits have also been used in preliminary studies because of their faster breeding.
One approach to this technology is the creation of a transgenic mammal that can produce the biopharmaceutical in its milk (or blood or urine). Once an animal is produced, typically using the pronuclear microinjection method, it becomes efficacious to use cloning technology to create additional offspring that carry the favorable modified genome.
Patentability issues
As indicated above, some mammals typically used for food production (such as goats, sheep, pigs, and cows) have been modified to produce non-food products, a practice sometimes called pharming. Use of genetically modified goats has been approved by the FDA and EMA to produce
The patentability of such biopharmaceuticals and their process of manufacture is uncertain. Probably, the biopharmaceuticals themselves so made are unpatentable, assuming that they are chemically identical to the preexisting drugs that they imitate. Several 19th century
On the other hand, it has been suggested that the recent Supreme Court decision in
In plants
Plant-made pharmaceuticals (PMPs), also referred to as pharming, is a sub-sector of the
Most commonly, plant transformation is carried out using
Recently, several non-crop plants such as the
Additionally, an Israeli company, Protalix, has developed a method to produce therapeutics in cultured transgenic carrot or tobacco cells.[39] Protalix and its partner, Pfizer, received FDA approval to market its drug, taliglucerase alfa (Elelyso), as a treatment for Gaucher's disease, in 2012.[40]
Regulation
The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of genetically modified crops. There are differences in the regulation of GM crops – including those used for pharming – between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the USA and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.
Controversy
There are controversies around GMOs generally on several levels, including whether making them is ethical, issues concerning intellectual property and market dynamics; environmental effects of GM crops; and GM crops' role in industrial agricultural more generally. There are also specific controversies around pharming.
Advantages
These pharmaceutical crops could become extremely beneficial in developing countries. The World Health Organization estimates that nearly 3 million people die each year from vaccine preventable disease, mostly in Africa. Diseases such as measles and hepatitis lead to deaths in countries where the people cannot afford the high costs of vaccines, but pharm crops could help solve this problem.[42]
Disadvantages
While molecular farming is one application of
In contrast, molecular farming is not intended for crops destined for the food chain. It produces plants that contain physiologically active compounds that accumulate in the plant’s tissues. Considerable attention is focused, therefore, on the restraint and caution necessary to protect both consumer health and environmental biodiversity.[2]
The fact that the plants are used to produce drugs alarms
List of originators (companies and universities), research projects and products
Please note that this list is by no means exhaustive.
- USDA Center for Veterinary Biologics[45] Dow never intended to market the vaccine.[46] "'Dow Agrosciences used the animal vaccine as an example to completely run through the process. A new platform needs to be approved, which can be difficult when authorities get in contact with it for the first time', explains the plant physiologist Stefan Schillberg, head of the Molecular Biology Division at the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology Aachen."[47]
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, with sites in Germany, the US, and Chile[48] is the lead institute of the Pharma Planta consortium of 33 partner organizations from 12 European countries and South Africa, funded by the European Commission.[49] Pharma Planta is developing systems for plant production of proteins in greenhouses in the European regulatory framework.[50] It is collaborating on biosimilars with Plantform and PharmaPraxis (see below).[51]
- antithrombin IIIin goat milk
- GTC Biotherapeutics – ATryn (recombinant human antithrombin) in goat milk[52]
- Icon Genetics produces therapeutics in transiently infected Nicotiana benthamiana (relative of tobacco) plants in greenhouses in Halle, Germanynon-Hodgkin's lymphoma.[54]
- Iowa State University – immunogenic protein from E. coli bacteria in pollen-free corn as a potential vaccine against E. coli for animals and humans[55][56][57]
- Kentucky Bioprocessing took over Large Scale Biology's facilities in Owensboro, Kentucky, and offers contract biomanufacturing services in tobacco plants, grown in greenhouses or in open fields.[58]
- PharmaPraxis – Developing biosimilars in collaboration with PlantForm (see below) and Fraunhofer.[51]
- Pharming – C1 inhibitor, human collagen 1, fibrinogen (with American Red Cross), and lactoferrin in cow milk[63] The intellectual property behind the fibrinogen project was acquired from PPL Therapeutics when PPL went bankrupt in 2004.[64]
- Phyton Biotech uses plant cell culture systems to manufacture
- Planet Biotechnology – antibodies against Streptococcus mutans, antibodies against doxorubicin, and ICAM 1 receptor in tobacco[66]
- PlantForm Corporation – biosimilar trastuzumab in tobacco[67] – It is developing biosimilars in collaboration with PharmaPraxis (see above) and Fraunhofer.[51]
- ProdiGene – was developing several proteins, including aprotinin, trypsin and a veterinary TGE vaccine in corn. Was in process of launching trypsin product in 2002[10] when later that year its field test crops contaminated conventional crops.[11] Unable to pay the $3 million cost of the cleanup, it was purchased by International Oilseed Distributors in 2003[68][69] International Oilseed Distributors is controlled by Harry H. Stine,[70] who owns one of the biggest soybeans genetics companies in the US.[71] ProdiGene's maize-produced trypsin, with the trademark TrypZean[72] is currently sold by Sigma-Aldritch as a research reagent.[73][74][75]
- Beta carotene in rice (this is "Golden rice 2"), which Syngenta has donated to the Golden Rice Project[76]
- Arizona State University – Hepatitis C vaccine in potatoes[77][78]
- Ventria Bioscience – lactoferrin and lysozyme in rice
- Washington State University – lactoferrin and lysozyme in barley[79][80]
- European COST Action on Molecular Farming – COST Action FA0804 on Molecular Farming provides a pan-European coordination centre, connecting academic and government institutions and companies from 23 countries.[81] The aim of the Action is to advance the field by encouraging scientific interactions, providing expert opinion and encouraging commercial development of new products. The COST Action also provides grants allowing young scientists to visit participating laboratories across Europe for scientific training.
Projects known to be abandoned
- Agragen, in collaboration with University of Alberta – docosahexaenoic acid and human serum albumin in flax[84][85][86]
- Chlorogen, Inc. – chloroplasts. Went out of business in 2007.[87]
- Dow Chemical Company made a deal with Sunol Molecular in 2003 to develop antibodies against tissue factor in plants and in mammalian cell culture and to compare them.[88] In 2005 Sunol sold all its tissue factor antagonists to Tanox,[89][90] which in turn was bought by Genentech in 2003. Genentech licensed the tissue factor program to Altor in 2008[91] Altor is itself a spinout from Sunol.[92] The product under development, ALT-836, formerly known as TNX-832 and Sunol-cH36,[93] is not the plant-produced antibody, but rather is a mammalian antibody, more specifically, a chimeric antibody produced in a hybridoma.[94]
- Large Scale Biology Corporation (LSBC) (bankrupt)G-CSF, and Hepatitis B vaccine antigens in tobacco. In 2004, LSBC announced an agreement with Sigma-Aldritch under which LSB would produce recombinant aprotinin in plants of the tobacco family and Sigma-Aldrich would commercially distribute LSBC's recombinant product to its customers in the R&D, cell culture and manufacturing markets.[98] As of October 2012 SIgma still has the protein in stock.[99]
- Meristem Therapeutics – protease inhibitors in tobacco. Liquidated in 2008.[100]
- Novoplant GmgH – therapeutic proteins in tobacco and feed peas.[101] Conducted field trials in US of feed peas for pigs that produced anti-bacterial antibodies.[102] Former CSO is now with another company;[103] appears that Novoplant is out of business.
- Monsanto Company– abandoned development of pharmaceutical producing corn
- PPL Therapeutics – sheep milk. This is the company that created Dolly the Sheep, the first cloned animal. Went bankrupt in 2004. Assets were acquired by Pharming[64] and an investment group including University of Pittsburgh Medical Center.[104]
See also
- Biopharmaceutical
- Bioremediation
- Genetically modified organism
- Polly and Molly
- International Center for Technology Assessment
References
- World Wide Words. Retrieved 2008-09-11.
- ^ a b c d Norris, Sonya (4 July 2005). "Molecular pharming". Library of Parliament. Parliament of Canada. PRB 05-09E. Archived from the original on May 7, 2010. Retrieved 2008-09-11.
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- ^ PMID 14624867.
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- ^ a b "ProdiGene Launches First Large Scale-Up Manufacturing of Recombinant Protein From Plant System" (Press release). ProdiGene. February 13, 2002. Retrieved March 8, 2013.
- ^ a b News of contamination
- ^ Biotechnology Regulatory Services Factsheet [Internet]: US Department of Agriculture; c2006. Available from: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/biotechnology/content/printable_version/BRS_FS_pharmaceutical_02-06.pdf Archived 2012-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- PMID 17470916.
- ^ FDA Approval News
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- ^ Staff (2008) FDA Approves First Human Biologic Produced by GE Animals US Food and Drug Administration, from the FDA Veterinarian Newsletter 2008 Volume XXIII, No VI, Retrieved 10 December 2012
- ^ "Go-ahead for 'pharmed' goat drug". BBC News. June 2, 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-25.
- ^ Andre Pollack for The New York Times. February 6, 2009 F.D.A. Approves Drug From Gene-Altered Goats
- ^ Richard H. Stern. Mayo v Prometheus: No Patents on Conventional Implementations of Natural Principles and Fundamental Truths, [2012] Eur. Intell. Prop. Rev. 502, 517. See Cochrane v. Badische Anili11 & Soda Fabrik, 111 U.S. 293, 311 (1884) (holding invalid claim to artificially made plant dye; "the product itself could not be patented, even though it was a product made artificially for the first time"); American Wood-Paper Co. v. Fibre Disintegrating Co., 90 U.S. 566, 596 (1874) (holding invalid claim to artificially manufactured paper-pulp because "whatever may be said of their process for obtaining it, the product was in no sense new").
- ^ The American Wood-Paper case invalidated the product patent but left open the patentability of the process, saying "whatever may be said of their process for obtaining it...." 90 U.S. at 596.
- ^ Mayo Collaborative Services v. Prometheus Labs., Inc., 566 U.S. __, 132 S. Ct. 1289 (2012).
- Alice v. CLS Bank, 573 U.S. __, 134 S. Ct. 2347 (2014) (to similar effect).
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- ^ Protalix website – technology platform Archived October 27, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Gali Weinreb and Koby Yeshayahou for Globes May 2, 2012. FDA approves Protalix Gaucher treatment Archived May 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c "Molecular Farming – Plant Bioreactors". BioPro. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
- ISBN 9780801473685.[page needed]
- ^ a b c Mandel, Charles (2001-11-06). "Molecular Farming Under Fire". wired. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
- ^ "Protein Products for Future Global Good". molecularfarming.com. Retrieved 2008-09-11.
- ^ Retrieved on 15 May 2007
- ^ Margret Engelhard, Kristin Hagen, Felix Thiele (eds). (2007) Pharming A New Branch of Biotechnology [1]
- ^ Farming for Pharma
- ^ Fraunhofer website
- ^ Pharma Planta website
- ^ FAQ page
- ^ a b c Brennan, Zachary. Brazilian JV looks to tap plant-based manufacturing system for biosimilars. BioPharma-Reporter.com, 23-Jul-2014.
- ^ GTC website
- ^ Press release on opening Halle facility
- ^ a b Icon press release on clinical trial launch
- ^ Iowa State Ag School 2006 Newsletter
- ^ APHIS approval
- ^ "Iowa State plant scientists tweak their biopharmaceutical corn research project". Archived from the original on 2015-06-02. Retrieved 2012-10-06.
- ^ Kentucky Bioprocessing website
- ^ Vezina, Louis-P.; D'Aoust, Marc Andre; Landry, Nathalie; Couture, Manon M.J.; Charland, Nathalie; Barbeau, Brigitte; Sheldon, Andrew J. (2011). "Plants As an Innovative and Accelerated Vaccine-Manufacturing Solution". BioPharm International Supplements. 24 (5): s27–30.
- ^ St. Philip, Elizabeth; Favaro, Avis; MacLeod, Meredith (2020-07-14). "The hunt for a vaccine: Canadian company begins human testing of COVID-19 candidate". CTV News. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
- ^ Vishwadha Chander (2020-07-14). "Canada's Medicago begins human trials of plant-based COVID-19 vaccine". National Post. Reuters. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
- ^ "Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of a Coronavirus-Like Particle COVID-19 Vaccine in Adults Aged 18-55 Years". ClinicalTrials.gov. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
- ^ Company website
- ^ a b Press on Pharming Purchase of PPL assets
- ^ Phyton Biotech Official Website
- ^ Company website
- ^ Company website
- ^ Press release from internet archive
- ^ Bloomberg BusinessWeek Profile
- ^ "Stocks". 2 November 2023.[dead link]
- ^ Stine Seeds Website
- ^ Trademark listing
- ^ SIgma Info Sheet
- ^ Ray, Kevin; Jalili, Pegah R. (2011). "Characterization of TrypZean: a Plant-Based Alternative to Bovine-Derived Trypsin (Peer-Reviewed)". BioPharm International. 24 (10): 44–8.
- ^ Sigma Catalog
- ^ FAQ page
- ^ "Charles Arntzen | School of Life Sciences".
- .
- ^ "NEPA Decision Summary for Permit #10-047-102r" (PDF). Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. March 10, 2010.
- ^ Wettstein lab webpage
- ^ COST Action FA0804 Official Website
- ^ Ward, Andrew (8 August 2014) Biotech groups face ethical dilemmas in race for Ebola Cure, Financial Times, Page 4, Internet article retrieved 8 August 2014
- ^ Langreth, Robert, et al (5 August 2014) Ebola Drug Made From Tobacco Plant Saves U.S. Aid Workers Bloomberg News, Retrieved 8 August 2014
- ^ Published PCT Application
- ^ CEO Sam Huttenbauer testified before Congress in 2005 about their GM flax efforts Testimony
- ^ Web search on October 6, 2012, found no website for this company and found that executives are all with other companies.
- ^ Bloomberg BusinessWeek Profile
- ^ Plant production for cancer protein Sept 22, 2003
- ^ Press Release
- ^ Purchase contract
- ^ Press Release
- ^ Altor website
- ^ Clinical trial number NCT00879606 for "Anti-TF Antibody (ALT-836) to Treat Septic Patients With Acute Lung Injury or Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome" at ClinicalTrials.gov
- PMID 20062929.
- ^ "GM corn set to stop man spreading his seed". The Guardian. 2001-09-09. Archived from the original on 2023-06-03.
- ^ Trelys press release
- Sacramento Business Journal. Retrieved 2007-05-10.
- ^ Biomanufacturing Press Release
- ^ Sigma catalog Aprotinin
- ^ History of bankrupt biotech companies
- ^ Cordis entry on Novoplant
- ^ APHIS approval
- ^ Kiprijanov biography
- ^ UPMC buys PPL assets
- ^ Press release May 15, 2012: SemBioSys Announces First Quarter Results and Provides Update on Activities
Further reading
- Biotech firm puts off rice crop here But company says it plans to sow next year. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. April 29, 2005. Pg. A3.
- Biotech potato provides hepatitis vaccine. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. February 15, 2005. Pg. 3A.
- Biotechnology Venture Hits Unexpected Snags. The New York Times. November 23, 2001. Pg. 5.
- Canadian scientists make insulin from plants: 'Bio-pharming' poised to meet huge diabetes demand at less cost. The Ottawa Citizen. February 27, 2005. Pg. A1.
- GM corn set to stop man spreading his seed. The Observer. September 9, 2001. Pg. 1.
- Pharming plans transgenic first. Financial Times. May 3, 2005. Pg. 18.
- USDA says bio-crop safeguards are tighter ProdiGene is back in Nebraska with test plot. Omaha World Herald. June 2, 2004 Pg. 01D
- Release Permits for Pharmaceuticals, Industrials, Value Added Proteins for Human Consumption, or for Phytoremediation Granted or Pending by APHIS as of March 29, 2006. [2]
External links
- molecularfarming.com Official site
- Molecular Farming – Plant Bioreactors
- Moss bioreactors do not smell (Interview with Ralf Reski)
- Molecular Pharming – pharmaceuticals with the help of GM plants
- Pharming for Farmaceuticals
- "Pharming the Field: A Look at the Benefits and Risks of Bioengineering Plants to Produce Pharmaceuticals". The Pew Charitable Trusts. July 18, 2002.
- USDA-APHIS Biotechnology Regulatory Services
- EPA Biotechnology page
- FDA Biotechnology page Archived 2009-05-17 at the Wayback Machine
- Homepage of the Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology
- Draft Guidance for APHIS Permits for Field Testing or Movement of Organisms with Pharmaceutical or Industrial Intent
- PlantPharma.org Online Community Archived 2021-04-18 at the Wayback Machine
- National Science Foundation
- Pharma-Planta Consortium
- Biotechnology Industry Organization
- Society for Moleculture, a non-for-profit organisation for plant- factories, Québec, Canada