Gastroenteritis

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Gastroenteritis
Other namesGastro, stomach bug, stomach virus, stomach flu, gastric flu, gastrointestinitis
intravenous fluids[2]
Frequency2.4 billion (2015)[6]
Deaths1.3 million (2015)[7]

Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea or simply as gastro, is an

intestine.[8] Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.[1] Fever, lack of energy, and dehydration may also occur.[2][3] This typically lasts less than two weeks.[8] Although it is not related to influenza, in the U.S. and U.K., it is sometimes called the "stomach flu".[9]

Gastroenteritis is usually caused by

parasites, and fungi can also cause gastroenteritis.[2][4] In children, rotavirus is the most common cause of severe disease.[10] In adults, norovirus and Campylobacter are common causes.[11][12] Eating improperly prepared food, drinking contaminated water or close contact with a person who is infected can spread the disease.[2] Treatment is generally the same with or without a definitive diagnosis, so testing to confirm is usually not needed.[2]

For young children in impoverished countries, prevention includes

nasogastric tube.[13] Zinc supplementation is recommended in children.[2] Antibiotics are generally not needed.[14] However, antibiotics are recommended for young children with a fever and bloody diarrhea.[1]

In 2015, there were two billion cases of gastroenteritis, resulting in 1.3 million deaths globally.

immunity.[18]

Signs and symptoms

Bristol stool chart

Gastroenteritis usually involves both diarrhea and vomiting.[18] Sometimes, only one or the other is present.[1] This may be accompanied by abdominal cramps.[1] Signs and symptoms usually begin 12–72 hours after contracting the infectious agent.[15] If due to a virus, the condition usually resolves within one week.[18] Some viral infections also involve fever, fatigue, headache and muscle pain.[18] If the stool is bloody, the cause is less likely to be viral[18] and more likely to be bacterial.[19] Some bacterial infections cause severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks.[19]

Children infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery within three to eight days.

skin turgor".[23] Abnormal breathing is another sign of severe dehydration.[23] Repeat infections are typically seen in areas with poor sanitation, and malnutrition.[15] Stunted growth and long-term cognitive delays can result.[17]

poor kidney function, and low red blood cell count (due to their breakdown).[24] Children are more predisposed to getting HUS than adults.[17] Some viral infections may produce benign infantile seizures.[1]

Cause

immunity.[1] Children are also at higher risk because they are less likely to practice good hygiene habits.[1] Children living in areas without easy access to water and soap are especially vulnerable.[1]

Viral

developing world.[20] Viruses cause about 70% of episodes of infectious diarrhea in the pediatric age group.[13] Rotavirus is a less common cause in adults due to acquired immunity.[27] Norovirus is the cause in about 18% of all cases.[28] Generally speaking, viral gastroenteritis accounts for 21–40% of the cases of infectious diarrhea in developed countries.[29]

Norovirus is the leading cause of gastroenteritis among adults in America accounting for about 90% of viral gastroenteritis outbreaks.

cruise ships,[18] in hospitals, or in restaurants.[1] People may remain infectious even after their diarrhea has ended.[18] Norovirus is the cause of about 10% of cases in children.[1]

Bacterial

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (ATCC 14028) as seen with a microscope at 1000 fold magnification and following Gram staining

In some countries, Campylobacter jejuni is the primary cause of bacterial gastroenteritis, with half of these cases associated with exposure to poultry.[19] In children, bacteria are the cause in about 15% of cases, with the most common types being Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species.[13] If food becomes contaminated with bacteria and remains at room temperature for a period of several hours, the bacteria multiply and increase the risk of infection in those who consume the food.[17] Some foods commonly associated with illness include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs; raw sprouts; unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses; and fruit and vegetable juices.[30] In the developing world, especially sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, cholera is a common cause of gastroenteritis. This infection is usually transmitted by contaminated water or food.[31]

Toxigenic

H2 antagonists.[35]

Parasitic

A number of

disasters.[36]

Transmission

Transmission may occur from drinking contaminated water or when people share personal objects.

primates, others (such as Giardia) may occur in a wide variety of animals.[17]

Non-infectious

There are a number of non-infectious causes of inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract.

puffer fish among others, and botulism typically due to improperly preserved food.[38]

In the United States, rates of emergency department use for noninfectious gastroenteritis dropped 30% from 2006 until 2011. Of the twenty most common conditions seen in the emergency department, rates of noninfectious gastroenteritis had the largest decrease in visits in that time period.[39]

Pathophysiology

Gastroenteritis is defined as

large bowel, often due to infection.[17] The changes in the small bowel are typically noninflammatory, while the ones in the large bowel are inflammatory.[17] The number of pathogens required to cause an infection varies from as few as one (for Cryptosporidium) to as many as 108 (for Vibrio cholerae).[17]

Diagnosis

Gastroenteritis is typically diagnosed clinically, based on a person's signs and symptoms.[18] Determining the exact cause is usually not needed as it does not alter the management of the condition.[15]

However,

Electrolytes and kidney function should also be checked when there is a concern about severe dehydration.[13]

Dehydration

A determination of whether or not the person has

skin turgor, and abnormal breathing.[23][41] Other useful findings (when used in combination) include sunken eyes, decreased activity, a lack of tears, and a dry mouth.[1] A normal urinary output and oral fluid intake is reassuring.[23] Laboratory testing is of little clinical benefit in determining the degree of dehydration.[1] Thus the use of urine testing or ultrasounds is generally not needed.[42]

Differential diagnosis

Other potential causes of signs and symptoms that mimic those seen in gastroenteritis that need to be ruled out include

Pancreatic insufficiency, short bowel syndrome, Whipple's disease, coeliac disease, and laxative abuse should also be considered.[43] The differential diagnosis can be complicated somewhat if the person exhibits only vomiting or diarrhea (rather than both).[1]

Appendicitis may present with vomiting, abdominal pain, and a small amount of diarrhea in up to 33% of cases.[1] This is in contrast to the large amount of diarrhea that is typical of gastroenteritis.[1] Infections of the lungs or urinary tract in children may also cause vomiting or diarrhea.[1] Classical diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) presents with abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting, but without diarrhea.[1] One study found that 17% of children with DKA were initially diagnosed as having gastroenteritis.[1]

Prevention

Percentage of rotavirus tests with positive results, by surveillance week, United States, July 2000 – June 2009

Water, sanitation, hygiene

Further information: WASH § Health aspects

A supply of easily accessible uncontaminated water and good sanitation practices are important for reducing rates of infection and clinically significant gastroenteritis.[17] Personal hygiene measures (such as hand washing with soap) have been found to decrease rates of gastroenteritis in both the developing and developed world by as much as 30%.[23] Alcohol-based gels may also be effective.[23] Food or drink that is thought to be contaminated should be avoided.[44] Breastfeeding is important, especially in places with poor hygiene, as is improvement of hygiene generally.[15] Breast milk reduces both the frequency of infections and their duration.[1]

Vaccination

Due to both its effectiveness and safety, in 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that the rotavirus vaccine be offered to all children globally.[25][45] Two commercial rotavirus vaccines exist and several more are in development.[45] In Africa and Asia these vaccines reduced severe disease among infants[45] and countries that have put in place national immunization programs have seen a decline in the rates and severity of disease.[46][47] This vaccine may also prevent illness in non-vaccinated children by reducing the number of circulating infections.[48] Since 2000, the implementation of a rotavirus vaccination program in the United States has substantially decreased the number of cases of diarrhea by as much as 80 percent.[49][50][51] The first dose of vaccine should be given to infants between 6 and 15 weeks of age.[25] The oral cholera vaccine has been found to be 50–60% effective over two years.[52]

There are a number of vaccines against gastroenteritis in development. For example, vaccines against Shigella and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), which are two of the leading bacterial causes of gastroenteritis worldwide.[53][54]

Management

Gastroenteritis is usually an acute and self-limiting disease that does not require medication.

butylscopolamine is useful in treating abdominal pain.[56]

Rehydration

The primary treatment of gastroenteritis in both children and adults is

nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted.[13] In those who require intravenous fluids, one to four hours' worth is often sufficient.[60]

Dietary

It is recommended that breast-fed infants continue to be nursed in the usual fashion, and that formula-fed infants continue their formula immediately after rehydration with ORT.

simple sugars should be avoided.[61] The BRAT diet (bananas, rice, applesauce, toast and tea) is no longer recommended, as it contains insufficient nutrients and has no benefit over normal feeding.[61]

A Cochrane Review from 2020 concludes that

antibiotic associated diarrhea.[63] Fermented milk products (such as yogurt) are similarly beneficial.[64] Zinc supplementation appears to be effective in both treating and preventing diarrhea among children in the developing world.[65]

Antiemetics

Antiemetic medications may be helpful for treating vomiting in children. Ondansetron has some utility, with a single dose being associated with less need for intravenous fluids, fewer hospitalizations, and decreased vomiting.[55][66][67][68] Metoclopramide might also be helpful.[68] However, the use of ondansetron might possibly be linked to an increased rate of return to hospital in children.[69] The intravenous preparation of ondansetron may be given orally if clinical judgment warrants.[70] Dimenhydrinate, while reducing vomiting, does not appear to have a significant clinical benefit.[1]

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are not usually used for gastroenteritis, although they are sometimes recommended if symptoms are particularly severe

Pseudomembranous colitis, usually caused by antibiotic use, is managed by discontinuing the causative agent and treating it with either metronidazole or vancomycin.[73] Bacteria and protozoans that are amenable to treatment include Shigella[74] Salmonella typhi,[75] and Giardia species.[36] In those with Giardia species or Entamoeba histolytica, tinidazole treatment is recommended and superior to metronidazole.[36][76] The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of antibiotics in young children who have both bloody diarrhea and fever.[1]

Antimotility agents

Antimotility medication has a theoretical risk of causing complications, and although clinical experience has shown this to be unlikely,

salicylate toxicity is theoretically possible.[1]

Epidemiology

Deaths due to diarrhoeal diseases per million persons in 2012
  0–2
  3–10
  11–18
  19–30
  31–46
  47–80
  81–221
  222–450
  451–606
  607–1799
Disability-adjusted life year for diarrhea per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004

It is estimated that there were two billion cases of gastroenteritis that resulted in 1.3 million deaths globally in 2015.

immunity.[18]

In 1980, gastroenteritis from all causes caused 4.6 million deaths in children, with the majority occurring in the developing world.[73] Death rates were reduced significantly (to approximately 1.5 million deaths annually) by 2000, largely due to the introduction and widespread use of oral rehydration therapy.[80] In the US, infections causing gastroenteritis are the second most common infection (after the common cold), and they result in between 200 and 375 million cases of acute diarrhea[17][18] and approximately ten thousand deaths annually,[17] with 150 to 300 of these deaths in children less than five years of age.[1]

Society and culture

Gastroenteritis is associated with many colloquial names, including "

Montezuma's revenge", "Delhi belly", "la turista", and "back door sprint", among others.[17] It has played a role in many military campaigns and is believed to be the origin of the term "no guts no glory".[17]

Gastroenteritis is the main reason for 3.7 million visits to physicians a year in the United States[1] and 3 million visits in France.[81] In the United States gastroenteritis as a whole is believed to result in costs of US$23 billion per year,[82] with rotavirus alone resulting in estimated costs of US$1 billion a year.[1]

Terminology

The first usage of "gastroenteritis" was in 1825.[83] Before this time it was commonly known as typhoid fever or "cholera morbus", among others, or less specifically as "griping of the guts", "surfeit", "flux", "colic", "bowel complaint", or any one of a number of other archaic names for acute diarrhea.[84] Cholera morbus is a historical term that was used to refer to gastroenteritis rather than specifically cholera.[85]

Other animals

Many of the same agents cause gastroenteritis in cats and dogs as in humans. The most common organisms are Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, and Salmonella.[86] A large number of toxic plants may also cause symptoms.[87]

Some agents are more specific to a certain species.

Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV) occurs in pigs resulting in vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration.[88] It is believed to be introduced to pigs by wild birds and there is no specific treatment available.[89] It is not transmissible to humans.[90]

See also

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Notes

External links

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