Pine nut

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Pine nuts, also called piñón (Spanish: [piˈɲon]), pinoli (Italian: [piˈnɔːli]), or pignoli, are the edible seeds of pines (family Pinaceae, genus Pinus). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, only 29 species provide edible nuts, while 20 are traded locally or internationally^[1] owing to their seed size being large enough to be worth harvesting; in other pines, the seeds are also edible but are too small to be of notable value as human food.^[1][2][3][4] The biggest exporters of pine nuts are China, Russia, North Korea, Pakistan and Afghanistan.^[5]

As pines are

.

Species and geographic spread

In Asia, two species, in particular, are widely harvested:

Pine nuts produced in Europe mostly come from the

Swiss pine

(P. cembra) is also used, to a very small extent.

In North America, the main species are three of the

Parry pinyon

(P. quadrifolia). Here, the nuts themselves are known by the Spanish name for the pinyon pine, piñón (plural: piñones).

In the United States, pine nuts are mainly harvested by

Species list

Korean pine

(Pinus koraiensis) nuts – unshelled, and shell, above; shelled, below

Commonly used species include:

• Old World
  • Pinus armandii –
    Chinese white pine
  • Pinus bungeana –
    lacebark pine
  • Pinus cembra –
    Swiss pine
  • Pinus gerardiana –
    Chilgoza pine
  • Pinus koraiensis –
    Korean pine
  • Pinus pinea – Mediterranean stone pine
  • Pinus pumila –
    Siberian dwarf pine
  • Pinus sibirica –
    Siberian pine
• New World
  • pinyon pine group – in southwestern North America
  • Pinus albicaulis –
    Whitebark pine
  • Pinus cembroides –
    Mexican pinyon
  • Pinus coulteri – Coulter pine
  • Pinus culminicola –
    Potosi pinyon
  • Pinus edulis –
    Two-needle piñon
    or Colorado pinyon (when grown in Colorado)
  • Pinus johannis –
    Johann's pinyon
    (includes P. discolor – Border pinyon)
  • Pinus monophylla –
    Single-leaf pinyon
  • Pinus orizabensis –
    Orizaba pinyon
  • Pinus quadrifolia – Four-leaved pinyon or Parry pinyon
  • Pinus remota –
    Papershell pinyon
    or Texas pinyon
  • Pinus sabiniana –
    California foothill pine

Pine nuts will not reach full maturity unless the environmental conditions are favorable for the tree and the cone. The time to maturity varies depending on the species.

For some American species, development begins in early spring with pollination. A tiny cone, about the size of a small marble, will form from mid-spring through the end of summer; this immature cone will temporarily cease growing and remain dormant until the following spring, then grow again until it reaches maturity near the end of its second summer. The mature piñon pine cone is ready to harvest ten days before the green cone begins to open. A cone is harvested by placing it in a

and exposing it to a heat source such as the sun to begin drying. It takes about 20 days until the cone fully opens. Once it is fully open and dry, the seed can be easily extracted in various ways. The most common and practical extraction method used is the repeated striking of the burlap bag containing the cone(s) against a rough surface to cause the cone(s) to shatter, leaving just the job of separating by hand the seed from the residue within the bag.

Another option for harvesting is to wait until the cone opens on the tree (as it naturally will) and harvest the cone from the piñon pine, followed by the extracting process mentioned above. Fallen seeds can also be gathered beneath the trees.

Because pine nuts are an important food source for many animals,

Elevation and pinecone production

Some growers claim that the elevation of the pinyon pine is an important determinant of the quantity of pine cone production and, therefore, will largely determine the number of pine nuts the tree will yield.[14] The US Department of Agriculture notes that variation in cone production between trees growing on identical sites is often observed.^[15]

American pinyon pine cone production is most commonly found at an elevation between 1,800 and 2,600 m (6,000 and 8,500 ft), and ideally at 2,100 m (7,000 ft). This is due to higher temperatures at elevations lower than 1,800 m (6,000 ft) during the spring, which dry up humidity and moisture content (particularly snow packs) that provide for the tree throughout the spring and summer, causing little nourishment for pine cone maturity.

Although several other environmental factors determine the conditions of the ecosystem (such as clouds and rain), the trees tend to abort cones without sufficient water. High humidity encourages cone development.^[16] There are certain topographical areas found in lower elevations, such as shaded canyons, where the humidity remains constant throughout the spring and summer, allowing pine cones to fully mature and produce seed.

At elevations above 2,600 m (8,500 ft), the temperature substantially drops, drastically affecting the state of the dormant cone. During the winter, frequent dramatic changes in temperature, drying, and gusty winds make the cones susceptible to

Physical characteristics

Armand pine

nut distinctions

When first extracted from the pine

carpel

(fruit) outside.

The shell must be removed before the pine nut can be eaten. Unshelled pine nuts have a long shelf life if kept dry and refrigerated (−5 to 2 °C or 23 to 36 °F); shelled nuts (and unshelled nuts in warm conditions) deteriorate rapidly, becoming rancid within a few weeks or even days in warm, humid conditions. Pine nuts are commercially available in the shelled form, but due to poor storage, they can have poor flavor and may already be rancid at the time of purchase. Consequently, pine nuts are often frozen to preserve their flavor.[18]

European pine nuts may be distinguished from Asian ones by their greater length than girth; Asian pine nuts are stubbier, shaped somewhat like long kernels of corn. The American piñon nuts are known for their large size and ease of shelling. In the United States,

of American pine nuts were readily available at low prices.

Nutrition

Nuts, pine nuts, shelled, dried

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	2,815 kJ (673 kcal)
Carbohydrates	13.1 g
Starch	5.81 g
Sugars	3.6 g
Dietary fiber	3.7 g
Fat	68.4 g
Saturated	4.9 g
Monounsaturated	18.7 g
Polyunsaturated	34.1 g
Protein	13.7 g
Vitamins and minerals Niacin (B3) 28% 4.4 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 6% 0.3 mg Vitamin B6 6% 0.1 mg Folate (B9) 9% 34 μg Choline 10% 55.8 mg Vitamin C 1% 0.8 mg Vitamin E 62% 9.3 mg Vitamin K 45% 53.9 μg Copper 144% 1.3 mg Iron 31% 5.5 mg Magnesium 60% 251 mg Manganese 383% 8.8 mg Phosphorus 46% 575 mg Potassium 20% 597 mg Selenium 1% 0.7 μg Zinc 58% 6.4 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	2.3 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[19] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies[20]

When dried for eating, pine nuts are 2% water, 13%

niacin

(29–35% DV), among others (table).

Culinary uses

Pine nuts have been eaten in Europe and Asia since the Paleolithic period.^{[citation needed]} They are frequently added to meat, fish, salads, and vegetable dishes or baked into bread.

In Italian, they are called pinoli (in the US, they are often called pignoli, but in Italy, pignolo is actually a word far more commonly used to describe a fussy, overly fastidious or extremely meticulous person)

and then topped with pine nuts.

In

southwestern France

. Nevada, or Great Basin, pine nut has a sweet fruity flavor and is promoted for its large size, sweet flavor, and ease of peeling.

Pine nuts are also widely used in

Throughout Europe, the

] They are easily distinguished from the Asian pine nuts by their more slender shape and more homogeneous flesh. Because of the lower price, Asian pine nuts are also often used, especially in cheaper preparations.

Pine nut oil is added to foods for flavor.^[23]

Some raw pine nuts can cause pine mouth syndrome, a taste disturbance lasting from a few days to a few weeks after consumption. A bitter, metallic, unpleasant taste is reported. There are no known lasting effects, with the United States Food and Drug Administration reporting that there are "no apparent adverse clinical side effects".^[24] Raw nuts from Pinus armandii, mainly in China, may be the cause of the problem.^[25][1] Metallic taste disturbance is typically reported 1–3 days after ingestion, being worse on day two and typically lasting up to two weeks.^[24] Cases are self-limited and resolve without treatment.^[26][27]

In the United States, from 2008 to 2012, some people reported a bitter metallic taste ("pine mouth") that sometimes lasted for weeks after they ate pine nuts. After an international investigation, the FDA found that some manufacturers substituted a non-food species of pine nuts in place of more expensive edible pine nut species as a form of

Other uses

Some Native American tribes use the hard outer shell of the pine nut as a bead for decorative purposes in traditional regalia and jewelry. In the Great Basin area of the US, collecting pine nuts is a protected right through state law and treaty.^[29]

In northern California, pine nuts are collected from the grey pine or bull pine. Tribes burn designs into the hard shell, reflecting the same design they use in baskets; however, they are often left blank or burned to blacken. These are more often used in women's regalia and jewelry.^[30]

• Assidat Zgougou
  – a Tunisian dessert made of pine nuts
• Jatjuk – a Korean porridge prepared using pine nuts
• List of edible seeds

Further reading

• Farris, Glenn J. (1982). "Pine Nuts as an Aboriginal Food Source in California and Nevada: Some Contrasts" (PDF). Journal of Ethnobiology. 2 (2): 114–122.
• Farris, Glenn J. & Blackburn, T.C. (Comp. and Ed.) & Anderson K. "Quality Food: The Quest for Pine Nuts in Northern California". Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians (Ballena Press, 1993 ed.). pp. 229–240.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pinus seeds.

• "Exporting pine nuts to Europe". Center for the Promotion of Imports. 24 April 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
• Charles, Dan (8 October 2014). "Love Pine Nuts? Then Protect Pine Forests". NPR. Retrieved 19 April 2015.