Antiscience
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Antiscience is a set of attitudes that involve a rejection of
History
In the early days of the
Hobbes' stance is regarded by Ian Shapiro as an antiscience position:
In his Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics,...[published in 1656, Hobbes] distinguished 'demonstrable' fields, as 'those the construction of the subject whereof is in the power of the artist himself,' from 'indemonstrable' ones 'where the causes are to seek for.' We can only know the causes of what we make. So geometry is demonstrable, because 'the lines and figures from which we reason are drawn and described by ourselves' and 'civil philosophy is demonstrable, because we make the commonwealth ourselves.' But we can only speculate about the natural world, because 'we know not the construction, but seek it from the effects.'[5]
In his book Reductionism: Analysis and the Fullness of Reality, published in 2000, Richard H. Jones wrote that Hobbes "put forth the idea of the significance of the nonrational in human behaviour".
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (1750), claimed that science can lead to immorality. "Rousseau argues that the progression of the sciences and arts has caused the corruption of virtue and morality" and his "critique of science has much to teach us about the dangers involved in our political commitment to scientific progress, and about the ways in which the future happiness of mankind might be secured".[8] Nevertheless, Rousseau does not state in his Discourses that sciences are necessarily bad, and states that figures like René Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton should be held in high regard.[9] In the conclusion to the Discourses, he says that these (aforementioned) can cultivate sciences to great benefit, and that morality's corruption is mostly because of society's bad influence on scientists.[10]
One recent biographer of Newton[15] considers him more as a renaissance alchemist, natural philosopher, and magician rather than a true representative of scientific Enlightenment, as popularized by Voltaire (1694–1778) and other Newtonians.
Antiscience issues are seen[] as being a product of an anti-scientific stance.
Friedrich Nietzsche in The Gay Science (1882) questions scientific dogmatism:
"[...] in Science, convictions have no rights of citizenship, as is said with good reason. Only when they decide to descend to the modesty of a hypothesis, of a provisional experimental point of view, of a regulative fiction, maybe they be granted admission and even a certain value within the realm of knowledge – though always with the restriction that they remain under police supervision, under the police of mistrust. But does this not mean, more precisely considered, that a conviction may obtain admission to science only when it ceases to be a conviction? Would not the discipline of the scientific spirit begin with this, no longer to permit oneself any convictions? Probably that is how it is. But one must still ask whether it is not the case that, in order that this discipline could begin, a conviction must have been there already, and even such a commanding and unconditional one that it sacrificed all other convictions for its own sake. It is clear that Science too rests on a faith; there is no Science 'without presuppositions.' The question whether truth is needed must not only have been affirmed in advance, but affirmed to the extent that the principle, the faith, the conviction is expressed: 'nothing is needed more than truth, and in relation to it, everything else has only second-rate value".[16]
The term "
However, non-reductionist (see
Political
Elyse Amend and Darin Barney argue that while antiscience can be a descriptive label, it is often used as a rhetorical one, being effectively used to discredit ones' political opponents and thus charges of antiscience are not necessarily warranted.[20]
Secular
Left-wing
One expression of antiscience is the "denial of
The anti-nuclear movement, often associated with the left,[23][24][25] has been criticized for overstating the negative effects of nuclear power,[26][27] and understating the environmental costs of non-nuclear sources that can be prevented through nuclear energy.[28] Opposition to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has also been associated with the left.[29]
Right-wing
The origin of antiscience thinking may be traced back to the reaction of
.Characteristics of antiscience associated with the right include the appeal to
In modern times, it has been argued that right-wing politics carries an anti-science tendency. While some have suggested that this is innate to either rightists or their beliefs, others have argued it is a "quirk" of a historical and political context in which scientific findings happened to challenge or appeared to challenge the worldviews of rightists rather than leftists.[34][35]
Religious
In this context, antiscience may be considered dependent on religious, moral and cultural arguments. For this kind of religious antiscience philosophy, science is an anti-spiritual and materialistic force that undermines traditional values, ethnic identity and accumulated historical wisdom in favor of
A frequent basis of antiscientific sentiment is religious
To the extent that attempts to overcome antiscience sentiments have failed, some argue that a different approach to science advocacy is needed. One such approach says that it is important to develop a more accurate understanding of those who deny science (avoiding stereotyping them as backward and uneducated) and also to attempt outreach via those who share cultural values with target audiences, such as scientists who also hold religious beliefs.[37]
Areas
There is a cult of ignorance in the United States, and there has always been. The strain of anti-intellectualism has been a constant thread winding its way through our political and cultural life, nurtured by the false notion that democracy means that "my ignorance is just as good as your knowledge".
Isaac Asimov, "A Cult of Ignorance", Newsweek, 21 January 1980
Historically, antiscience first arose as a reaction against
Recent developments and discussions around antiscience attitudes reveal how deeply intertwined these beliefs are with social, political, and psychological factors. A study published by Ohio State News on July 11, 2022, identified four primary bases that underpin antiscience beliefs: doubts about the credibility of scientific sources, identification with groups holding antiscience attitudes, conflicts between scientific messages and personal beliefs, and discrepancies between the presentation of scientific messages and individuals’ thinking styles. These factors are exacerbated in the current political climate, where ideology significantly influences people's acceptance of science, particularly on topics that have become politically polarized, such as vaccines and climate change. The politicization of science poses a significant challenge to public health and safety, particularly in managing global crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.[39][40]
The following quotes explore this aspect of four major areas of antiscience: philosophy, sociology, ecology and political.
Philosophy
Philosophical objections against science are often objections about the role of reductionism. For example, in the field of psychology, "both reductionists and antireductionists accept that... non-molecular explanations may not be improved, corrected or grounded in molecular ones".[41] Further, "epistemological antireductionism holds that, given our finite mental capacities, we would not be able to grasp the ultimate physical explanation of many complex phenomena even if we knew the laws governing their ultimate constituents".[42] Some see antiscience as "common...in academic settings...many people see that there are problems in demarcation between science, scientism, and pseudoscience resulting in an antiscience stance. Some argue that nothing can be known for sure".[43]
Many philosophers are "divided as to whether reduction should be a central strategy for understanding the world".[44] However, many agree that "there are, nevertheless, reasons why we want science to discover properties and explanations other than reductive physical ones".[44] Such issues stem "from an antireductionist worry that there is no absolute conception of reality, that is, a characterization of reality such as... science claims to provide".[45].
Sociology
Sociologist Thomas Gieryn refers to "some sociologists who might appear to be antiscience".[46] Some "philosophers and antiscience types", he contends, may have presented "unreal images of science that threaten the believability of scientific knowledge",[46] or appear to have gone "too far in their antiscience deconstructions".[46] The question often lies in how much scientists conform to the standard ideal of "communalism, universalism, disinterestedness, originality, and... skepticism".[46] "scientists don't always conform... scientists do get passionate about pet theories; they do rely on reputation in judging a scientist's work; they do pursue fame and gain via research".[46] Thus, they may show inherent biases in their work. "[Many] scientists are not as rational and logical as the legend would have them, nor are they as illogical or irrational as some relativists might say".[46]
Ecology and health sphere
Within the ecological and health spheres,
Glazer also criticises the therapists and patients, "for abandoning the biological underpinnings of nursing and for misreading philosophy in the service of an antiscientific world-view".
The writings of Young serve to illustrate more antiscientific views: "The strength of the antiscience movement and of alternative technology is that their advocates have managed to retain Utopian vision while still trying to create concrete instances of it".[50] "The real social, ideological and economic forces shaping science...[have] been opposed to the point of suppression in many quarters. Most scientists hate it and label it 'antiscience'. But it is urgently needed, because it makes science self-conscious and hopefully self-critical and accountable with respect to the forces which shape research priorities, criteria, goals".[50]
Genetically modified foods also bring about antiscience sentiment. The general public has recently become more aware of the dangers of a poor diet, as there have been numerous studies that show that the two are inextricably linked.[51] Anti-science dictates that science is untrustworthy, because it is never complete and always being revised, which would be a probable cause for the fear that the general public has of genetically modified foods despite scientific reassurance that such foods are safe.
Antivaccinationists rely on whatever comes to hand presenting some of their arguments as if scientific; however, a strain of antiscience is part of their approach.[52]
Political
Political scientist Tom Nichols, from Harvard Extension School and the U.S. Naval War College, points out that skepticism towards scientific expertise has increasingly become a symbol of political identity, especially within conservative circles. This skepticism is not just a result of misinformation but also reflects a broader cultural shift towards diminishing trust in experts and authoritative sources. This trend challenges the traditional neutrality of science, positioning scientific beliefs and facts within the contentious arena of political ideology.[40]
The COVID-19 pandemic, for example, conflicting responses to public health measures and vaccine acceptance have highlighted the extent to which science has been politicized. Such polarization suggests that for some, rejecting scientific consensus or public health guidance serves as an expression of political allegiance or skepticism towards perceived authority figures.[40]
This politicization of science complicates efforts to address public health crises and undermines the broader social contract that underpins scientific research and its application for the public good. The challenge lies not only in combating misinformation but also in bridging ideological divides that affect public trust in science. Strategies to counteract antiscience attitudes may need to encompass more than just presenting factual information; they might also need to engage with the underlying social and psychological factors that contribute to these attitudes, fostering dialogue that acknowledges different viewpoints and seeks common ground.[40]
Antiscience media
Major antiscience media include portals Natural News, Global Revolution TV, TruthWiki.org, TheAntiMedia.org and GoodGopher. Antiscience views have also been supported on social media by organizations known to support fake news such as the web brigades.[53]: 124
See also
- Anarcho-primitivism – Anarchist critique of civilization
- Anti-intellectualism – Hostility to and mistrust of education, philosophy, art, literature, and science
- Anti-psychiatry – Movement against psychiatric treatment
- Creation science – Pseudoscientific form of Young Earth creationism
- Modern Flat Earth societies– Modern-day beliefs concerning the shape of the Earth
- Bruno Latour – French philosopher, anthropologist and sociologist (1947–2022)
- Denialism – Person's choice to deny psychologically uncomfortable truth
- Philosophical skepticism – Philosophical views that question the possibility of knowledge or certainty
- Ernst Cassirer – German philosopher (1874–1945)
- Eugenics – Aim to improve perceived human genetic quality
- Faith and rationality – Two approaches that exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility
- Fundamentalism – Unwavering attachment to a set of irreducible beliefs
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – German philosopher (1770–1831)
- Giambattista Vico – Italian philosopher (1668–1744)
- Greedy reductionism – Kind of erroneous reductionism
- Green conservatism – Combination of conservatism and environmentalism
- Holism – A system as a whole, not just its parts
- Idealism – Philosophical view
- Johann Georg Hamann – German philosopher (1730–1788)
- Johann Gottfried Herder – German philosopher, theologian, poet (1744–1803)
- Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – German writer and polymath (1749–1832)
- Neo-Luddism – Philosophy opposing modern technology
- Platonism – Philosophical system
- Politicization of science – Use of science for political purposes
- Pseudoskepticism – Philosophical position that appears to be skeptic but is actually dogmatic
- Radical environmentalism
- Reactionary – Political view advocating a return to a previous state of society
- Science wars – 1990s dispute in philosophy of science
- Social Darwinism – Group of theories and societal practices
- Sokal affair – 1996 scholarly publishing sting accepted by an academic journal
- Subjective idealism – Philosophy that only minds and ideas are real
- Technological dystopia– Community or society that is undesirable or frightening
- Technophobia – Fear or discomfort with advanced technology
- William Morris – English textile artist, author, and socialist (1834–1896)
- William R. Steiger – American government official
References
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- ^ Jones, p. 213
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- ^ "Bacon, Descartes and Newton, those teachers of mankind, had themselves no teachers. What guide indeed could have taken them so far as their sublime genius directed them?"
- ^ Compare: "But so long as power alone is on one side, and knowledge and understanding alone on the other, the learned will seldom make great objects their study, princes will still more rarely do great actions, and the peoples will continue to be, as they are, mean, corrupt and miserable." (Rousseau, The Social Contract and Discourses)
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The emmet's inch and eagle's mile
Make lame philosophy to smile.
He who doubts from what he sees
Will ne'er believe, do what you please.
If the sun and moon should doubt,
They'd immediately go out. - ^ Notes to Blake's Newton, at Princeton University
- ^ Newton: Personification of Man Limited by Reason, Tate Gallery, London
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- ^ Stephen D Snobelen, Writings on Newton, 2007
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- ^ JSTOR 3080621.
- ^ Richard Levins, Whose Scientific Method? Scientific Methods for a Complex World, New Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy, Vol.13,3, 2003, 261–74
- ^ a b Sarah Glazer, "Therapeutic touch and postmodernism in nursing", Nursing Philosophy (2001) 2(3), 196–212.
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- Leviathan and the Air PumpSchapin and Shaffer (covers the conflict between Hobbes and Boyle).
- The Scientific Outlook by Bertrand Russell (sets out the limits of science from the perspective of a vehement campaigner against anti-science).
- An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding by David Hume (The first major work to point out the limits of inductive reasoning, the 'new tool of science').
- Against Method by Paul Feyerabend (probably the individual most accused of reinvigorating anti-science, although some claim that he is in fact strengthening the scientific debate).
External links
- "What's wrong with relativism?", Physics World, by Harry Collins
- The Postmodern Critique of Science
- A Critique of Western Science by Alex Paterson
- The Critique of Science Becomes Academic by Brian Martin
- If They Believe That – Science by Reginald Firehammer
- The Ontological Reversal: A Figure of Thought of Importance for Science Education by Bo Dahlin
- Davidson, Donald, Essays on Actions and Events, OUP, 2001 ISBN 0199246270
- Rosenberg, Alex; Kaplan, D. M. (2005). "How to Reconcile Physicalism and Antireductionism about Biology". S2CID 170840113.
- Psychoneural Reduction The New Wave, John Bickle, Bradford Books, 1998, ISBN 0262024322
- Dunning, Brian (8 November 2011). "Skeptoid #283: Top 10 Anti-Science Websites". Skeptoid.