Royal forest
A royal forest, occasionally known as a kingswood (
In
Afforestation, in particular the creation of the New Forest, figured large in the folk history of the "Norman yoke", which magnified what was already a grave social ill: "the picture of prosperous settlements disrupted, houses burned, peasants evicted, all to serve the pleasure of the foreign tyrant, is a familiar element in the English national story .... The extent and intensity of hardship and of depopulation have been exaggerated", H. R. Loyn observed.[4] Forest law prescribed harsh punishment for anyone who committed any of a range of offences within the forests; by the mid-17th century, enforcement of this law had died out, but many of England's woodlands still bore the title "Royal Forest". During the Middle Ages, the practice of reserving areas of land for the sole use of the aristocracy was common throughout Europe.
Royal forests usually included large areas of
Areas chosen for royal forests
The areas that became royal forests were already relatively wild and sparsely populated, and can be related to specific geographic features that made them harder to work as farmland.
In the
Marshlands in Lincolnshire were afforested.[9] Upland moors too were chosen, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor in the South West, and the Peak Forest of Derbyshire. The North Yorkshire moors, a sandstone plateau, had a number of royal forests.[8]
Forest law
Offences
Offences in forest law were divided into two categories: trespass against the vert (the vegetation of the forest) and trespass against the venison (the game).
The five animals of the forest protected by law were given by
Trespasses against the vert were extensive: they included purpresture, assarting, clearing forest land for agriculture, and felling trees or clearing shrubs, among others. These laws applied to any land within the boundary of the forest, even if it were freely owned; although the Charter of the Forest in 1217 established that all freemen owning land within the forest enjoyed the rights of agistment and pannage (see below). Under the forest laws, bloody hand was a kind of trespass by which the offender, being apprehended and found with his hands or other body part stained with blood, is judged to have killed the deer, even though he was not found hunting or chasing.[11]
Disafforested lands on the edge of the forest were known as
Rights and privileges
Payment for access to certain rights could provide a useful source of income. Local nobles could be granted a royal licence to take a certain amount of game. The common inhabitants of the forest might, depending on their location, possess a variety of rights:
Officers
The justices of the forest were the justices in eyre and the verderers.
The chief royal official was the warden. As he was often an eminent and preoccupied magnate, his powers were frequently exercised by a deputy. He supervised the
Another group, called serjeants-in-fee, and later, foresters-in-fee (not to be confused with the above), held small estates in return for their service in patrolling the forest and apprehending offenders.
The forests also had
Courts
Blackstone gives the following outline of the forest courts, as theoretically constructed:
- Court of attachment, sometimes called the Forty-Day Court or Woodmote. This court was held every forty days, and was presided over by verderers and the Warden, or his deputy. The foresters attached persons who had committed crimes against the forest law and brought them before this court to have them enrolled; however, it did not possess the power to try or convict individuals, and such cases had to be passed upwards to the swainmote or the court of justice seat.
- Court of regard, held every third year to enforce the law requiring declawing of dogs within the forest.
- Swainmote or Sweinmote was held three times a year: the fortnight before the feast of St. Michael, about the feast of St. Martin, and the fortnight before the feast of St. John the Baptist. It was presided over by the Warden and verderers, the foresters and swine, probably a misapprehension through its regulation of pannage.)
- Court of justice-seat or eyre was the highest of the forest courts. It was to be held every three years, to be announced forty days in advance, and was presided over by a justice in eyre. It was, in theory, the only court that could pass sentence upon offenders of the forest laws.
In practice, these fine distinctions were not always observed. In the
History
Since the
William the Conqueror
Magna Carta
- (44) People who live outside the forest need not in future appear before the Royal Justices of the Forest in answer to general summonses, unless they are actually involved in proceedings or are sureties for someone who has been seized for a forest offence.
- (47) All forests that have been created in our reign shall at once be disafforested. River-banks that have been enclosed in our reign shall be treated similarly.
- (48) All evil customs relating to forests and warrens, foresters, warreners, sheriffs and their servants, or river-banks and their wardens, are at once to be investigated in every county by twelve sworn knights of the county, and within forty days of their enquiry the evil customs are to be abolished completely and irrevocably. But we, or our chief justice if we are not in England, are first to be informed.
- (52) To any man whom we have deprived or dispossessed of lands, castles, liberties, or rights, without the lawful judgement of his equals, we will at once restore these. In cases of dispute the matter shall be resolved by the judgement of the twenty-five barons referred to below in the clause for securing the peace (§ 61). In cases, however, where a man was deprived or dispossessed of something without the lawful judgement of his equals by our father King Henry or our brother King Richard, and it remains in our hands or is held by others under our warranty, we shall have respite for the period commonly allowed to Crusaders, unless a lawsuit had been begun, or an enquiry had been made at our order, before we took the Cross as a Crusader. On our return from the Crusade, or if we abandon it, we will at once render justice in full.
- (53) We shall have similar respite [to that in clause 52] in rendering justice in connexion with forests that are to be disafforested, or to remain forests, when these were first afforested by our father Henry or our brother Richard; with the guardianship of lands in another person's `fee', when we have hitherto had this by virtue of a `fee' held of us for knight's service by a third party; and with abbeys founded in another person's `fee', in which the lord of the `fee' claims to own a right. On our return from the Crusade, or if we abandon it, we will at once do full justice to complaints about these matters.
Charter of the Forest
After the death of John, Henry III was compelled to grant the Charter of the Forest (1217), which further reformed the forest law and established the rights of agistment and pannage on private land within the forests. It also checked certain of the extortions of the foresters. An "Ordinance of the Forest" under Edward I again checked the oppression of the officers and introduced sworn juries in the forest courts.
Great Perambulation and after
In 1300 many (if not all) forests were perambulated and reduced greatly in their extent, in theory to their extent in the time of Henry II. However, this depended on the determination of local juries, whose decisions often excluded from the Forest lands described in Domesday Book as within the forest. Successive kings tried to recover the "purlieus" excluded from a forest by the Great Perambulation of 1300. Forest officers periodically fined the inhabitants of the purlieus for failing to attend Forest Court or for forest offences. This led to complaints in Parliament. The king promised to remedy the grievances, but usually did nothing.
Several forests were alienated by
The last serious exercise of forest law by a court of justice-seat (Forest Eyre) seems to have been in about 1635, in an attempt to raise money.
Disafforestation, sale of forest lands and the Western Rising
Delimitation of Forests Act 1640 16 Cha. 1. c. 16 | |
---|---|
Dates | |
Royal assent | 7 August 1641[17][18] |
Repealed | 1 July 1971[19] |
Other legislation | |
Repealed by | Wild Creatures and Forest Laws Act 1971 |
Status: Repealed | |
Text of statute as originally enacted |
By the
Cecil made the first steps towards abolition of the forests, as part of James I's policy of increasing his income independently of Parliament. Cecil investigated forests that were unused for royal hunting and provided little revenue from timber sales.
Cranfield commissioned surveys into
Each disafforestation would start with a commission from the Exchequer, which would survey the forest, determine the lands belonging to the crown, and negotiate compensation for landowners and tenants whose now-traditional rights to use of the land as commons would be revoked. A legal action by the Attorney General would then proceed in the Court of Exchequer against the forest residents for intrusion, which would confirm the settlement negotiated by the commission. Crown lands would then be granted (leased), usually to prominent courtiers, and often the same figures that had undertaken the commission surveys. Legal complaints about the imposed settlements and compensation were frequent.[21]
The disafforestations caused riots and
The disturbances tended to involve artisans and cottagers who were not entitled to compensation. The riots were hard to enforce against, due to the lack of efficient militia, and the low-born nature of the participants.[22] Ultimately, however, enclosure succeeded, with the exceptions of Dean and Malvern Chase.
In 1641, Parliament passed the Delimitation of Forests Act 1640 (16 Cha. 1 c. 16, also known as Selden's Act) to revert the forest boundaries to the positions they had held at the end of the reign of James I.[18]
After the Restoration
The Forest of Dean was legally re-established in 1668.[23] A Forest Eyre was held for the New Forest in 1670, and a few for other forests in the 1660s and 1670s, but these were the last. From 1715, both surveyors' posts were held by the same person. The remaining royal forests continued to be managed (in theory, at least) on behalf of the crown. However, the commoners' rights of grazing often seem to have been more important than the rights of the crown.
In the late 1780s, a royal commission was appointed to inquire into the condition of Crown woods and those surviving. North of the Trent it found Sherwood Forest survived, south of it: the New Forest, three others in Hampshire, Windsor Forest in Berkshire, the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire, Waltham or Epping Forest in Essex, three forests in Northamptonshire, and Wychwood in Oxfordshire. Some of these no longer had swainmote courts thus no official supervision. They divided the remaining forests into two classes, those with and without the Crown as major landowner. In certain Hampshire forests and the Forest of Dean, most of the soil belonged to the Crown and these should be reserved to grow timber, to meet the need for oak for shipbuilding. The others would be inclosed, the Crown receiving an "allotment" (compensation) in lieu of its rights.
In 1810, responsibility for woods was moved from Surveyors-General (who accounted to the Auditors of Land Revenue) to a new
Surviving ancient forests
Forest of Dean
The Forest of Dean was used as a source of
Epping & Hainault Forests
Epping and Hainault Forest are surviving remnants of the Royal Forest of Waltham.
New Forest
The New Forest is home to the British cultural minority known as
Sherwood Forest
A forest since the end of the Ice Age (as attested by pollen sampling cores), Sherwood Forest National Nature Reserve today encompasses 423.2 hectares,[27] (1,045 acres) surrounding the village of Edwinstowe, the site of Thoresby Hall.
The core of the forest[citation needed] is the Special Area of Conservation named Birklands and Bilhaugh.[28] It is a remnant of an older, much larger, royal hunting forest, which derived its name from its status as the shire (or sher) wood of Nottinghamshire, which extended into several neighbouring counties (shires), bordered on the west along the River Erewash and the Forest of East Derbyshire. When the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086, the forest covered perhaps a quarter of Nottinghamshire in woodland and heath subject to the forest laws.
Royal forests by county
England
Name of forest | County | Disafforestation date | Notes | Soil or landscape |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aconbury[29] | Herefordshire | 1216, part[30] | 360 acres assarted to support a nunnery in 1216[30] | |
Accrington | Lancashire | |||
Alice Holt and Woolmer Forests | Hampshire | 1812 | [29] | Sandy, gravelly acid soils; dry oak, birch wood[8] |
Allerdale Forest | Cumberland | [29] | ||
Alnwick | Northumberland | 1280 | [29] | |
Alveston | Gloucestershire | [29] | ||
Archenfield | Herefordshire | 1251 | [29] | |
Ashurst | Sussex | [29] | ||
Bagshot | Surrey | Part of Windsor Forest[29] |
Sandy, gravelly acid soils; dry oak, birch wood[8] | |
Becontree | Essex | [29] | ||
Bedfordshire | Bedfordshire | 1191, Part disafforested | [29] | |
Bere Forest including Bere Ashley | Hampshire and Dorset | 1269, in Dorset | [29] | Sandy, gravelly acid soils; dry oak, birch wood[8] |
Bere Porchester | Hampshire | 1810 | [31] | Sandy, gravelly acid soils; dry oak, birch wood[8] |
Berkshire | Berkshire | 1227 | [31] | |
Bernwood Forest | Buckinghamshire | 1622 | Including Brill and Panshill[31] | Clay soils, woodlands[8] |
Bernwood Forest | Oxfordshire | 1622 | Partly in Bucks[31] | Clay soils, woodlands[8] |
Blackmoor Forest | Dorset | 1277 | [31] | Heavy clay soils, dense oak forest[8] |
Blackmore | Wiltshire | Alias Melksham[31] | ||
Bolsover Forest | Derbyshire | [31] | ||
Bowland | Lancashire and Yorkshire | |||
Braydon Forest or Forest of Braden | Wiltshire | 1630 | Including parish of Minety, at that time in Gloucestershire[31] Disafforested with riots[32] | Heavy clay soils, dense oak forest[8] |
Brewood Forest | Staffordshire or Shropshire | 1204 | [31] | |
Brigstock | Northamptonshire | 1638 | Part of Rockingham Forest[31] | |
Brill | Buckinghamshire | Part of Bernwood Forest[31] | ||
Burrington Forest | ||||
Carlisle |
Cumberland | or Inglewood Forest[31] | ||
Cannock Chase | Staffordshire | 1290, in part | 1290 partially given to the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield for a Chase[33] | |
Charnwood Forest | ||||
Chelmsford | Essex | |||
Chippenham | Wiltshire | 1618–23 | Perhaps excepting Bowood or Pewsham New Park[34] |
Heavy clay soils, dense oak forest[8] |
Chute Forest | Hampshire and Wiltshire | 1639–61 | Included Finkley and Digerley Forests[34] | |
Cirencester | Gloucester | Possibly Braydon[34] | ||
Clarendon Forest | Wiltshire | 1664 (Clarendon) | Including Panchet Wood and Milchet Park, with the associated Forest of Buckholt, Hampshire[34] | |
Claverley and Worfield | Shropshire | [34] | ||
Cornbury |
Oxfordshire | Or Wychwood[34] | ||
Cornwall | Cornwall | 1204 | Two woods and two moors disafforested 1215[34] | |
Dartmoor | Devon | 1204 | Annexed to Duchy of Cornwall 1337[34] | High moorlands[8] |
Dean | Gloucestershire and Herefordshire | [34] | Midland clay plain, oak forest[8] | |
Delamere | Cheshire | 1812 | Remains of the Forests of Mara and Mondrem; outside of normal forest administration[34] | Sandstone with glacial sands and gravels and fertile clay;wetlands |
Duffield Frith | Derbyshire | A group of six royal forests | ||
East Derbyshire[35] | ||||
Waltham Forest |
Essex | 1878 | Epping Forest Act 1878 established preservation and common rights | |
Forest of Essex | Essex | 1204 | Entire county afforested to 1204[36] | |
Essex, north | Essex | 1204 | "North of the Stanestreet",[9][36] Tendring Hundred 1228 | Boulder clay, fertile lands[9] |
Exmoor Forest | Devon and Somerset | 1815 | [36] | High moorlands[8] |
Farndale Forest | Yorkshire | 1209 | [36] | |
Feckenham Forest | Worcestershire and Warwickshire | 1622–31 | [36] Riots on disafforestation 1630–31[37] | Midland clay plain, woodlands[8] |
Filwood | Somerset | Part of Kingswood[36] |
||
Freemantle Forest | Hampshire | [36] | ||
Galtres |
Yorkshire | 1629 | [36] | |
Geddington | Northamptonshire | 1676 | Part of Rockingham Forest[36] | |
Gillingham Forest | Dorset | 1625 | [36] | Heavy clay soils, dense oak forest[8] |
Groveley Forest | Wiltshire | 1500s | [36] | |
Haughmond | Shropshire | [36] | ||
Hainault | 1851 | Part of Essex Forest | ||
Hartforth | Yorkshire | 1203 | [36] | |
Harewood | Herefordshire | [36] | Midlands clay plain | |
Hastings, Rape of | Sussex | 1206–07 | [36] | |
Hatfield Forest | Essex | Part of former Essex Forest | ||
Hay of Hereford | Herefordshire | Midlands clay plain | ||
Forest of High Peak | North Derbyshire | |||
Horwood | Herefordshire | [38] | ||
Forest of Huntingdonshire | Huntingdonshire | Mainly Forests of Weybridge, Sapley and Herthey. Whole small county in C13th[38] | ||
Inglewood Forest | Cumberland | Sometimes including Allerdale[38] | ||
Irchenfield Forest | Herefordshire | 1251 | ||
Isle of Wight Forest | Hampshire | [38] | ||
Kesteven Forest | Lincolnshire Fens | 1230 | 'Forest of the March'[38] NB: this is not the modern forestry management district of the same name | Marsh, fens[9] |
Keynsham Forest | Somerset | Alias Kingswood[38] |
||
Kingswood | Gloucestershire | Alias Keynsham[38] | ||
Kilpeck | Herefordshire | [38] | ||
King's Cliffe | Northamptonshire | Part of Rockingham Forest[38] | ||
Kinver Forest | Staffordshire formerly extending into Worcestershire | [38] | Midland clay plain, woodlands[8] | |
Knaresborough Forest |
Yorkshire | [38] | ||
Lee |
Rutland | Or Leighfield[38] | ||
Langwith Hay | Yorkshire | |||
Leicester Forest | Leicestershire | 1628 | Riots occurred at disafforestation.[39] | |
Long Forest | Shropshire | Incl Longmynd, Stapelwood, Burswood, Lythwood and Stapleton[38] | Midland clay plain, woodlands[8] | |
Long Mynd or Strattondale | Shropshire | |||
Lonsdale (including Wyresdale and Quernsmore) |
Lancashire | 1267 | [40] | |
Linwood | Hampshire | Part of the New Forest[40] | ||
Macclesfield Forest | Cheshire | See Delamere Forest[40] | ||
Malvern Forest | Worcestershire | 1290 | Later listed as a chase[40] | Midland clay plain, woodlands;[8] upland moors |
Malvern Chase | Worcestershire | 1632, 1676 | Strictly a chase, but 'disaforrested' with riots,[41] confirmed 1676;[42] Malvern Hills Act 1884 established preservation and common rights | Midland clay plain, woodlands;[8] upland moors |
Mara et Mondrum |
Cheshire | 1812 | Delamere Forest is a remnant | |
Melchet | Wiltshire | 1577–1614 | In southeast of county, between Clarendon and Hampshire border[43][40] | |
Melksham and Chippenham Forest | Wiltshire | 1623 | [40] | Heavy clay soils, dense oak forest[8] |
Mendip Forest | Somerset | Also known as Cheddar[40] | ||
Forest of Middlesex | Middlesex and part of modern Hertfordshire | 1218 | [44] | |
Morfe Forest | Shropshire | lying east and southeast of Bridgnorth | Midland clay plain, woodlands[8] | |
Needwood Forest | Staffordshire, east | was parcel of the Duchy of Lancaster; Chase? | ||
Neroche Forest | Somerset | 1627–29 | [40] | |
New Forest | Hampshire | 1877 | New Forest Act 1877 established preservation and rights of common | Sandy, gravelly acid soils; dry oak, birch wood[8] |
New Forest, Staffordshire | Staffordshire | 1204 | [40] | |
North Petherton | Somerset | [40] | ||
Forest of Northumberland | Northumberland | 1280 | [40] | |
Ombersley and Horewell | Worcestershire | 1229 | [45] | Midland clay plain, woodlands[8] |
Ongar | Essex | [45] | ||
Ouse and Derwent | Yorkshire | 1234 | [45] | |
Oxford and Stamford Bridges | Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and Huntingdonshire | [45] | ||
Pamber Forest |
Hampshire | 1614 | Granted to John Waller and Thomas Pursell[45] | |
Peak | Derbyshire | 1639–1674 | [45] | Limestone uplands[8] |
Penchet | Part of Clarendon Forest[45] | |||
Pendle | Lancashire | |||
Pickering Forest | North Yorkshire | 1639 | [45] | Sandstone upland plateau[46] |
Poorstock Forest |
Dorset | (see Powerstock)[45] | ||
Purbeck | Dorset | 1550 | Granted to Duke of Somerset[45] | |
Rockingham Forest | Northamptonshire | 1638 & 1795-6 | Including Brigstock, Cliffe, Geddington and Northampton Park; Bailiwicks disafforested 1790s[47] | Clay soils, woodlands[8] |
Forest of Rossendale | Lancashire | |||
Forest of Rutland, with Sauvey Forest | Leicestershire | 1398 | Granted to the Duke of Abermarle[47] | |
Ryedale | Yorkshire | 1204 | [45] | |
Salcey Forest | Buckinghamshire and Northamptonshire | 1825 | [47] | Clay soils, woodlands[8] |
Sauvey | Leicestershire | 1236 | Except Withcote, 1627[47] | |
Savernake Forest | Berkshire and Wiltshire | 1550 | Or Marlborough Forest; Granted to Duke of Somerset[47] | |
Selwood Forest | Somerset and Wiltshire | 1627–29 | [47] | Heavy clay soils, dense oak forest[8] |
Sherwood Forest | Nottinghamshire | 1818 | Famous by its historic association with the legend of Robin Hood.[47] | Clay plain, woodlands[8] |
Shirlett Forest | Shropshire | Final extent was a small area northwest of Bridgnorth[47] | ||
Shotover Forest | Oxfordshire | Including Stowood[47] | Clay soils, woodlands[8] | |
Skipton | Yorkshire | |||
Somerton Warren | Somerset | |||
Spaunton | Yorkshire | [47] | ||
Stapelwood (including Buriwood, Lythewood and Stepelton) | Shropshire | |||
Surrey, south | Surrey | 1191 | South of the Guildford Road[47] | |
Trawden | Lancashire | |||
Treville | Herefordshire | 1230 | Granted to John of Monmouth[48] | |
Waltham Forest |
Essex | Last remnant of Forest of Essex[48] | ||
Windsor Forest | Berkshire, Surrey and negligibly Hampshire | 1813 | [48] | Sandy, gravelly acid soils; dry oak, birch wood[8] |
Forest of Wirral | Cheshire | 1376 | [48] | |
Whittlewood Forest | Buckinghamshire, Northamptonshire and Oxfordshire | Clay soils, woodlands[8] | ||
Woodstock Forest | Oxfordshire | [48] | ||
Woolmer Forest | Hampshire | 1855 | [48] | Sandy, gravelly acid soils; dry oak, birch wood[8] |
Wrekin Forest | Shropshire | (more strictly Mount Gilbert Forest) (including Wellington and Wombridge) and the associated Forest of Haughmond[48] | Midland clay plain, woodlands[8] | |
Wychwood Forest | Oxfordshire | 1853 | [48] | Heavy clay soils, dense oak forest[8] |
Wyre Forest | Worcestershire and Shropshire | Strictly only a chase | ||
Yardley Chase | Northants |
Ireland
Only one royal forest is known to have been formed in the Lordship of Ireland.
Name of forest | County | Disafforestation date | Notes | Soil or landscape |
---|---|---|---|---|
Glencree | Wicklow | c. 1315 | Sir Thomas Fitzadam was Royal Forester of Glencree in 1219.[49] In 1244, sixty does and twenty bucks were ordered to be "taken alive in the king's parks nearest to the port of Chester to be sent to the port of Dalkey, Ireland, and delivered to the king's Treasurer in Dublin to stock the king's Park of Glencry."[50]
In 1282, William le Deveneys was granted 12 oaks from the King's forest of Glencree.[51] William de Meones was keeper of the forest and of "the Queen's timber works" in 1290.[citation needed] It is last mentioned in the reign of Edward I and is believed to have been destroyed during the Bruce campaign in Ireland (1315–18).[52][53] |
Podzol, oak trees |
See also
- Ancient woodland
- Crown land
- Deer park (England)
- English land law
- English Lowlands beech forests
- Perambulation
- History of the forest in Central Europe
- Verderer
References
Specific
- ^ Darby (1986)[page needed]
- ^ Dugdale (1846)[page needed]
- ^ Braunstein (1990)[page needed]
- ^ a b c Loyn (1991), pp. 378–382
- ^ Henderson (1896)
- ^ Grant (1991), Chapter 1
- ^ Young (1979)[page needed]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Grant (1991), p. 5
- ^ a b c d Grant (1991), p. 6
- ^ Manwood (1598), Chapter 1
- ^ Chambers (1728)
- ^ Samson (2012), p. 6
- ^ Henry II
- ^ Magna Carta
- short title was authorised by section 5 of, and Schedule 2 to, the Statute Law Revision Act 1948. Due to the repeal of those provisions, it is now authorised by section 19(2) of the Interpretation Act 1978.
- ^ These words are printed against this Act in the second column of Schedule 2 to the Statute Law Revision Act 1948, which is headed "Title".
- ^ House of Lords (1641), p. 349
- ^ a b National Archives
- ^ The whole Act was repealed by section 1(4) of, and the Schedule to, the Wild Creatures and Forest Laws Act 1971, which took effect on the date of its royal assent.
- ^ a b Sharp (1980), p. 56
- ^ a b Sharp (1980), pp. 56–57
- ^ Sharp (1980)
- ^ Sharp (1980), p. 164
- ^ Rackham (1990), pp. 176–177
- ^ Martin (2017)
- ^ City of London (1878)
- ^ Natural England
- ^ Joint Nature Conservation Committee
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Grant (1991), p. 221, Appendix: Table of Forests
- ^ a b Lovelace (2001), Herefordshire Council
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Grant (1991), p. 222, Appendix Table of Forests
- ^ Sharp (1980), pp. 59–60
- ^ Cannock Chase District Council
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Grant, p. 223
- ^ Turbutt (1999)[page needed]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Grant (1991), p. 224
- ^ Sharp (1980), pp. 61, 63
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Grant (1991), p. 225
- ^ Sharp (1980), pp. 70–71
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Grant (1991), p. 226
- ^ Lees (1877), pp. 16–17
- ^ An Act for Confirmation of the Inclosure and Improvement of Malvern "Chase" 1676, cited in 1884 Act
- ^ Crittall (1959)[page needed]
- ^ A Topographical Dictionary of England (1848)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Grant (1991), p. 227
- ^ Grant (1991), pp. 5–6
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Grant (1991), p. 228
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Grant (1991), p. 229
- ^ Ball (1926)[page needed]
- ^ Falkiner, Part 1
- ^ Ball (1926), pp. 60–61
- ^ Medcalf (2019)
- ^ Le Fanu (1893), pp. 268–280
Bibliography
- Ball, F. Elrington (1926). The Judges in Ireland 1221–1921. London: John Murray.
- Bazeley, Margaret Ley (1921). "The Extent of the English Forest in the Thirteenth Century". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 4: 140–172. JSTOR 3678331.
- Braunstein, Philippe (1990). "Forêts d'Europe au Moyen-Âge". Les Cahiers du Centre de Recherches Historiques (6). . Retrieved 22 August 2012.
- "Cannock Chase at Birches Valley". Cannock Chase District Council. Archived from the originalon 23 September 2015.
- "Epping Forest Act 1878" (PDF). City of London Corporation. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- Crittall, Elizabeth, ed. (1959). "Victoria County History: Wiltshire: Vol 4: Royal forests". British History Online. University of London. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
- Darby, H. C. (1986). Domesday England. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521310260– via Google Books.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "Bloody hand". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. p. 110. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
- Dugdale, William (3 August 1846). "Monasticon Anglicanum...a History of the Abbies and Other Monasteries...and Cathedral and Collegiate Churches...in England and Wales". Bohn – via Google Books.
- Falkiner, Caesar Litton. The Woods of Ireland. Corpus of Electronic Texts.
- Gilbert, J.M. (1979). Hunting and Hunting Reserves in Medieval Scotland. Edinburgh: John Donald Ltd.
- Grafton Regis History and Heritage (CD ROM). Grafton Regis Millennium Project. 2004.
- Grant, Raymond (1991). The royal forests of England. Wolfeboro Falls, NH: Alan Sutton. OL 1878197M.
- Henderson, Ernest F. (1896). "The Dialogue Concerning the Exchequer. circa 1180". Archived from the original on 8 February 2007. Retrieved 8 February 2007.
- "The Assize of the Forest (1184)". Constitution Society. Archived from the original on 11 January 2006.
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