Slavery in Asia
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An overview of Asian slavery shows it has existed in all regions of Asia throughout its history. Although slavery is now illegal in every Asian country,[1] some forms of it still exist today.[2]
Afghanistan
Slavery was present in the post-Classical
It was considered legitimate to enslave war captives; during the Afghan occupation of Persia (1722–1730), for example, thousands of people were enslaved, and the Baluch made regular incursions into Southeastern Iran to capture people and turn them into slaves.[4] The slave traffic in Afghanistan was particularly active in the northwest, where 400 to 500 were sold annually.[4] In Southern Iran, poor parents sold their children into slavery, and as late as c. 1900, slave raids were conducted by chieftains in south Iran.[4] The markets for these captives were often in Arabia and Afghanistan; "most of the slave girls employed as domestics in the houses of the gentry at Kandahar were brought from the outlying districts of Ghayn".[4]
The rulers of Afghanistan customarily had a harem of four official wives as well as a large number of unofficial wives for the sake of tribal
Most slaves were employed as agricultural laborers, domestic slaves and sexual slaves. In contrast, other slaves served in administrative positions.[8] Slaves in Afghanistan possessed some social mobility, especially those slaves who were owned by the government. Slavery was more common in towns and cities because some Afghan tribal communities did not readily engage in the slave trade; according to some sources, the decentralized nature of Afghan tribes forced more urbanized areas to import slaves to fill labor shortages. Most slaves in Afghanistan had been imported from Persia and Central Asia.[8]
According to a report of an expedition to Afghanistan published in London in 1871:
The country generally between Caubul (
Sirikul, Kunjūt (Hunza), &c. A slave, if a strong man likely to stand works well, is, in Upper Badakshan, considered to be of the same value as one of the large dogs of the country, or of a horse, being about the equivalent of Rs 80. A slave girl is valued at four horses or more, according to her looks &c.; men are, however, almost always exchanged for dogs. When I was in Little Tibet (Ladakh), a returned slave who had been in the Kashmirarmy took refuge in my camp; he said he was well enough treated as to food &c., but he could never get over having been exchanged for a dog, and constantly harped on the subject, the man who sold him evidently thinking the dog the better animal of the two. In Lower Badakshan, and more distant places, the price of slaves is much enhanced, and payment is made in coin.— "Report of "The Mary's" Exploration from Caubul to Kashgar." T. G. Montgomerie. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 41 (1871), p. 146.
Central Asia and the Caucasus
- See also: Black Sea slave trade and Slave trade in the Mongol Empire
Slavery is integral to the social, economic, and political history of
Political conquests, economic competition, and religious conversion all mattered in determining who had control over the slave trade, which demographic slave traders targeted, and whose demand slave traders catered to.Mechanisms for enslavement
- See also: Khivan slave trade and Bukhara slave trade
Warfare, slave raids, legal punishments, self-sales, or sales by relatives, and inheritance of slave status from birth were the common ways individuals become a slave in Central Asia. Linguistic analysis of the vocabulary used for slavery in early Central Asian societies suggests a strong connection between military actions and slavery.
Raids among
Violent encounters are not the only mechanism through which an individual was enslaved. Iranian and Chinese sources attest to the practice of self-enslavement or self-selling. In the Pahlavi Book of a Thousand Judgements, the word tan (body), designates a person who loans oneself or one's relative for a specific period of time to a debtor or creditor as security for a debt.[19] In China, legal code historically prohibited individuals from selling children or other relatives into slavery. However, sale contracts indicate that poverty, famine, and other unfortunate circumstances often compelled individuals to sell or loan themselves, their children, and other relatives.[21] This is not to say that slave sales were prohibited in China, however. Tang legal codes regulated the sale of people who were already designated slave status by requiring individuals to provide certificates that demonstrate the individuals were lawfully enslaved.[22] In one recorded case, a man sold his daughter and son in order to raise funds to pay for his father's funeral.[23]
A notorious slave market for captured
Function of slavery in Central Asian societies
The slave trade was also an essential aspect of the economy of Central Asian societies. Due to the high demand for slaves in neighboring sedentary empires, Central Asian Turkic nomads supplied the majority of slaves to the Islamic caliphate to the west and the Chinese dynasties to the east. In the Abbasid empire, the establishment of the Mamluk institution created the preference and demand for young, Turkic male slaves due to their supposedly superior military strength.[29] As a result of these demands, the economy of Central Asian states flourished as they dominated the slave trade. The Khazar Qaghanate,[30] the Samanids, and later the Ghaznavids, were some of the main suppliers of Turkic military slaves, Circassian slaves, and Russian slaves to Baghdad.[19]
Modern slavery
Slavery gradually disappeared from the Caucasus owing to reduced demand for Circassian slaves from the Ottoman Empire and Egypt, Russian imperial policy that used the issue of slaves to infringe upon Ottoman sovereignty, and the actions of the slaves themselves.[31] In Central Asia, informal slavery continued into the Soviet period and some forms of slavery continue to exist today.[32]
The tradition of slavery exists today in Russia.[33]
China
Slavery throughout pre-modern Chinese history has repeatedly come in and out of favor. Due to the enormous population and relatively high development of the region throughout most of its history, China has always had a large workforce.
Tang Dynasty
The
Yuan Dynasty
Many Han Chinese were enslaved in the process of the Mongol invasion of China proper.[40] According to Japanese historians Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), there were also certain numbers of Mongolian slaves owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan dynasty. Moreover, there is no evidence that the Han Chinese, who were considered to rank at the bottom of Yuan society by some research, were subjected to particularly cruel abuse.[41][42]
Qing Dynasty
In the 17th century
In his book China Marches West, Peter C. Perdue stated: "In 1624(After
- Various classes of Booi
- booi niru a Manchu word (Chinese:包衣佐領 or 大内总管), meaning Neiwufu Upper Three Banner's platoon leader of about 300 men.
- Booi guanlin a Manchu word (Chinese:包衣管領), meaning the manager of booi doing all the domestic duties of Neiwufu.
- Booi amban is also a Manchu word, meaning high official (Chinese:包衣大臣).
- Estate bannerman (Chinese: 庄头旗人) are those renegade Chinese who joined the Jurchen, or original civilians-soldiers working in the fields. These people were all turned into booi aha, or field slaves.
Han Chinese who committed crimes such as those dealing with opium became slaves to the begs, this practice was administered by Qing law.[47] Most Chinese in Altishahr were exiled slaves to Turkestani Begs.[48] Ironically, while free Chinese merchants generally did not engage in relationships with East Turkestani women, some of the Chinese slaves belonging to begs, along with Green Standard soldiers, Bannermen, and Manchus, engaged in affairs with the East Turkestani women that were serious in nature.[49]
The Qing dynasty procured 420 women and girl slaves, all of them Mongol, to service Oirat Mongol bannermen stationed in Xinjiang in 1764.[50] Many Torghut Mongol boys and girls were sold to Central Asian markets or on the local Xinjiang market to native Turkestanis.[51]
Here are two accounts of slavery given by two Westerners in the late 19th century and early 20th century:
"In the houses of wealthy citizens, it is not unusual to find twenty to thirty slaves attending upon a family. Even citizens in the humbler walks of life deem it necessary to have each a slave or two. The price of a slave varies, of course, according to age, health, strength, and general appearance. The average price is from fifty to one hundred dollars, but in time of war, or revolution, poor parents, on the verge of starvation, offer their sons and daughters for sale at remarkably low prices. I remember instances of parents, rendered destitute by the marauding bands who invested the two southern Kwangs in 1854–55, offering to sell their daughters in Canton for five dollars apiece. ...
The slavery to which these unfortunate persons are subject, is perpetual and hereditary, and they have no parental authority over their offspring. The great-grandsons of slaves, however, can, if they have sufficient means, purchase their freedom. ...
Masters seem to have the same uncontrolled power over their slaves that parents have over their children. Thus a master is not called to account for the death of a slave, although it is the result of punishment inflicted by him."[52]
"In former times slaves were slain and offered in sacrifice to the spirit of the owner when dead, or by him to his ancestors: sometimes given as a substitute to suffer the death penalty incurred by his owner or in fulfilment of a vow. It used to be customary in Kuei-chou (and Szü-chuan too, I believe) to inter living slaves with their dead owners; the slaves were to keep a lamp burning in the tomb....
"Slavery exists in China, especially in Canton and Peking.... It is a common thing for well-to-do people to present a couple of slave girls to a daughter as part of her marriage dowery [sic]. Nearly all prostitutes are slaves. It is, however, customary with respectable people to release their slave girls when marriageable. Some people sell their slave girls to men wanting a wife for themselves or for a son of theirs.
"I have bought three different girls: two in Szü-chuan for a few taels each, less than fifteen dollars. One I released in Tientsin, another died in Hongkong; the other I gave in marriage to a faithful servant of mine. Some are worth much money at Shanghai."[53]
In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reversing exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.[54] In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing 張文慶 was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu 馬進祿 were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers.[55] The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper.[56]
Modern times
Although slavery has been abolished in China since 1910,[57] in 2018, the Global Slavery Index estimated that there are approximately 3.8 million people enslaved in China.[58]
Throughout the 1930s and 1940s the
Indian subcontinent
The early
The
The
According to Sir Henry Frere, there were an estimated 8 or 9 million enslaved persons in India in 1841. In Malabar, about 15% of the population were slaves. Slavery was officially abolished two years later in India by the Indian Slavery Act of 1843. Provisions of the Indian Penal Code of 1861 effectively abolished slavery in India by making the enslavement of human beings a criminal offense.[71][72][73][74]
Modern times
There are an estimated five million bonded workers in Pakistan, even though the government has passed laws and set up funds to eradicate the practice and rehabilitate the laborers.[75] As many as 200,000 Nepali girls, many under 14, have been sold into
This is the reason why casteism, xenophobia, ethnicity and unfair discrimination have given birth to slavery in Pakistan.[79]
Japan
Slavery in Japan was, for most of its history, indigenous, since the export and import of slaves was restricted by Japan being a group of islands. The export of a slave from Japan is recorded in a 3rd-century Chinese document, although the system involved is unclear. These people were called seiko (生口), lit. "living mouth". "Seiko" from historical theories are thought to be as prisoner, slave, a person who has technical skill and also students studying abroad to China.[80]
In the 8th century, a slave was called nuhi (奴婢) and a series of laws on slavery was issued. In an area of present-day Ibaraki Prefecture, out of a population of 190,000, around 2,000 were slaves; the proportion is believed to have been even higher in western Japan.
Slavery persisted into the Sengoku period (1467–1615), but the attitude that slavery was anachronistic had become widespread.[81] Oda Nobunaga is said to have had an African slave or former-slave in his retinue.[82][dubious ] Korean prisoners of war were shipped to Japan as slaves during the Japanese invasions of Korea in the 16th century.[83][84]
In 1595, Portugal passed a law banning the selling and buying of Chinese and Japanese slaves,[85] but forms of contract and indentured labor persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labor. Somewhat later, the Edo period penal laws prescribed "non-free labor" for the immediate family of executed criminals in Article 17 of the Gotōke reijō (Tokugawa House Laws), but the practice never became common. The 1711 Gotōke reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes promulgated between 1597 and 1696.[86]
World War II
As the
According to a joint study by historians including Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyoshi Himeta, Toru Kubo and
Approximately 5,400,000
Korea
The
Southeast Asia
Indochina
During the millennium long
There was a large slave class in Khmer Empire who built the enduring monuments in Angkor and did most of the heavy work.[104] Slaves had been taken captive from the mountain tribes.[105] People unable to pay back a debt to the upper ruling class could be sentenced to work as a slave too.[106]
In
Yi people in Yunnan practiced a complicated form of slavery. People were split into the Black Yi (nobles, 7% of the population), White Yi (commoners), Ajia (33% of the Yi population) and Xiaxi (10%). Ajia and Xiaxi were slave castes. The White Yi were not slaves but had no freedom of movement. The Black Yi were famous for their slave-raids on Han Chinese communities. After 1959 some 700,000 slaves were freed.[109][110][111]
Maritime Southeast Asia
Slaves in
Slavery was practiced by the tribal
Slavery in Southeast Asia reached its peak in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when fleets of
There was also a slave trade that occurred in Singapore which involved people from Flores and Sulawesi by Bugis slavers and Minangkabau, Siak and Pekanbaru slaves obtained by Malay slavers documented in person by Abdullah Abdul Kadir in his autobiography.[116]
European powers finally succeeded in the mid-1800s in cutting off these raids through use of steam-powered warships.[117][118]
Modern times
The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million
Within the
Thai women are frequently lured and sold to brothels where they are forced to work off their price. Burmese are commonly trafficked into Thailand for work in factories, as domestics, for street begging directed by organized gangs.
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labor in Myanmar.[121] In November 2006, the International Labour Organization announced it will be seeking "to prosecute members of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous forced labor of its citizens by the military at the International Court of Justice.[122]
As of end-2015,
Further reading
- Gwyn Campbell (2004), The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia. Abingdon: Routledge.
- Titas Chakraborty and Matthias van Rossum. "Slave Trade and Slavery in Asia-- New Perspectives", Journal of Social History 54:1, pp. 1–14.
- Chatterjee, Indrani (2006). Slavery and South Asian History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Jeff Eden (2018), Slavery and Empire in Central Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Scott C. Levi (2002), "Hindus Beyond the Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 12:3, pp. 277-288.
- Fischer-Tiné, Harald (June 2003). "'White women degrading themselves to the lowest depths' : European networks of prostitution and colonial anxieties in British India and Ceylon ca. 1880–1914". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 40 (2): 163–190. S2CID 146273713.
- Lal, K. S. (1994). The Muslim Slave System in Medieval India. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
- Salim Kidwai (1985). "Sultans, Eunuchs and Domestics: New Forms of Bondage in Medieval India", in Utsa Patnaik and Manjari Dingwaney (eds), Chains of Servitude: bondage and slavery in India. Madras: Orient Longman.
- Major, Andrea (2014). Slavery, Abolitionism and Empire in India, 1772–1843. Liverpool University Press.
- R.C. Majumdar, The History and Culture of the Indian People. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
- Samonova, Elena (2019). Modern Slavery and Bonded Labor in South Asia: A Human Rights-Based Approach. Abingdon: Routledge.
- Andre Wink (1991). Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Leiden: Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004095090
See also
- Slavery in the Mongol Empire
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ "ILO seeks to charge Myanmar junta with atrocities". Reuters. 16 November 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2006.[dead link]
- ^ Aw, Cheng Wei. "Few understand full impact and extent of human trafficking: Survey". Straits Times. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
External links
- Mémoire St Barth : Saint-Barthelemy's history (slave trade, slavery, abolitions)
- UN.GIFT – Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking
- "Slave Trade Archives", UNESCO
- "Parliament and the British Slave Trade" at UK Parliament.
- Digital History – "Slavery Fact Sheets"
- "Muslim Slave System in Medieval India" by K.S. Lal at Voice of Dharma.
- "Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade" at Education Scotland.
- The Forgotten Holocaust: The Eastern Slave Trade
- Teaching resources about Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory4schools.com
- "What really ended slavery?" Robin Blackburn, author of a two-volume history of the slave trade, interviewed by International Socialism
- David Brion Davis, "American and British Slave Trade Abolition in Perspective", Southern Spaces, 4 February 2009.
- The Slave Next Door: Human Trafficking and Slavery in America Today – video report by Democracy Now!
- Archives on slavery at the University of London
- Slavery Museum, Great Britain