Subfields of psychology
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Divisions
Abnormal
Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology studies the nature of psychopathology and its causes, and this knowledge is applied in clinical psychology to treat patients with psychological disorders.
It can be difficult to draw the line between normal and abnormal behaviors. In general, abnormal behaviors must be maladaptive and cause an individual significant discomfort in order to be of clinical and research interest. According to the DSM-IV-TR, behaviors may be considered abnormal if they are associated with disability, personal distress, the violation of social norms, or dysfunction.[1]
Anomalistic
Anomalistic psychology is the study of human behaviour and experience connected with what is often called the paranormal, without the assumption that there is anything paranormal involved.[2] Researchers involved with anomalistic psychology try to provide plausible non-paranormal accounts, supported by empirical evidence, of how psychological and physical factors might combine to give the impression of paranormal activity when there had been none. Apart from deception or self-deception such explanations might involve cognitive biases, anomalous psychological states, dissociative states, hallucinations, personality factors, developmental issues and the nature of memory.[3] A notable researcher in the field of anomalistic psychology is the British psychologist Chris French who set up the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit (APRU) in the Department of Psychology at Goldsmiths, University of London.[4]
Behavioral Genetics
Biological
Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental states. Seeing all behavior as intertwined with the nervous system, biological psychologists feel it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. Cognitive neuroscientists often use neuroimaging tools, which can help them to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.
Clinical
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are
Cognitive
On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereas neuroscience provides measures of brain activity.
Community
Community psychology deals with the relationships of the individual to communities and the wider society. Community psychologists seek to understand the quality of life of individuals, communities, and society. Their aim is to enhance quality of life through collaborative research and action.
Community psychology makes use of various perspectives within and outside of psychology to address issues of communities, the relationships within them, and people's attitudes about them. Through collaborative research and action, community psychologists (practitioners and researchers) seek to understand and to enhance quality of life for individuals, communities, and society. Community psychology takes a public health approach and focuses on prevention and early intervention as a means to solve problems in addition to treatment. Rappaport (1977) discusses the perspective of community psychology as an ecological perspective with the
Comparative
Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior such as ethology. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research. This being either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology) or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology. This is achieved by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).
Consulting
Consulting psychology includes the application of psychology to consulting contexts at the individual, group and organizational levels. The field specializes in assessment and intervention, particularly in business and organizational applications but also is concerned with the consulting process used to assess and facilitate change in any area of psychology. Lowman[15] (2002) provides an overview of the field, including the relevance of individual, group and organizational levels to consulting psychologists.
Counseling
Cyber
Cyberpsychology is the study of the psychological processes related to, and underlying, technologically interconnected human behavior.[16] Cyberpsychologists use psychological theory and research to explain online behaviour, and to investigate how connected technologies influence how we think, feel and behave. Areas in cyberpsychology include the psychology of online dating and relationships, online learning, online working, online gaming, online shopping, online gambling, online crime, online media (including social media), virtual reality, augmented reality and online entertainment. Cyberpsychology is a recognised subfield of psychology that has a dedicated section within the British Psychological Society (BPS).[17]
Developmental
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span,
Differential
Differential psychology studies the ways in which individuals differ in their personality, cognition, emotion, and behavior. There is a focus on the measurement of individual differences.
Educational
Environmental
Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field focused on the interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the term environment broadly, encompassing natural environments, social settings, built environments, and learning environments. Since its conception, the field has been committed to the development of a discipline that is both value oriented and problem oriented, prioritizing research aiming at solving complex environmental problems in the pursuit of individual well-being within a larger society.
Evolutionary
Forensic
Health
Health psychology is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life and in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.
Industrial-Organizational
Legal
Moral
Moral psychology is an interdisciplinary field of research focusing on moral values, judgment, behavior, and other topics at the intersection of ethics and psychology.
Media
Media psychology seeks an understanding of the relationships between mediated communication and the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of the senders and recipients of the communication. For instance, a media psychologist might determine that depressed individuals are especially likely to watch television.[20]
Occupational Health
Occupational health psychology (OHP) is a discipline that emerged from health psychology, industrial/organizational psychology, and occupational health. OHP is concerned with identifying psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that give rise to problems in physical (e.g., cardiovascular disease) and mental health (e.g., depression). OHP has investigated such psychosocial characteristics of workplaces as workers' decision latitude and supervisors' supportiveness. OHP also concerns itself with interventions that can prevent or ameliorate work-related health problems. Such interventions have important, beneficial implications for the economic success of organizations. Other research areas of concern to OHP include workplace violence, unemployment, and workplace safety. Two exemplary OHP journals are the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology and Work & Stress. Two prominent OHP professional organizations are the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology and the Society for Occupational Health Psychology.
Personality
Quantitative
Religion/Spirituality
Psychology of religion and spirituality is the psychological study of religious and spiritual experiences, beliefs, activities, and feelings. This subfield has existed since modern psychology's early days, and is the focus of Division 36 of the American Psychological Association. William James (1842–1910) is regarded by most psychologists of religion/spirituality as the founder of the field, and his Varieties of Religious Experience is considered to be a classic work in the field. Since 2008, the American Psychological Association has published a journal dedicated to this subfield, entitled the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality.[22] In recent decades, scholars have increasingly conceptualized religion as a way of living, rather than merely a belief system or institution.[23] Religion and spirituality are commonly viewed as distinct but overlapping constructs.[24][25][26] Surveys indicate that large majorities of US adults consider religion and/or spirituality to be very important in their lives.[27][28] Scientific and psychological interest in the psychology of religion/spirituality has increased substantially in recent decades. The American Psychological Association now publishes many books on the topic of religion/spirituality.[29] The Association's publications include the recent (2013) two-volume Handbook of Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality,[30] with Volume One focusing on theory,[31] and Volume Two focusing on applications.[32]
School
School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of "gifted" students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.[33] Currently, school psychology is the only field in which a professional can be called a "psychologist" without a doctoral degree, with the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) recognizing the specialist degree as the entry level. This is a matter of controversy as the APA does not recognize anything below a doctorate as the entry level for a psychologist. Specialist-level school psychologists, who typically receive three years of graduate training, function almost exclusively within school systems, while those at the doctoral-level are found in a number of other settings as well, including universities, hospitals and private practice.
Social
References
- ^ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR Fourth Edition (Text Revision) by the American Psychiatric Association.
- ISBN 978-0230301504
- ^ What is Anomalistic Psychology?
- ^ Anomalistic psychology: What is it and why bother? by Chris French
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- ISBN 0-17-490058-9
- ^ Leichsenring, Falk & Leibing, Eric. (2003). The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(7), 1223-1233.
- ^ Reisner, Andrew. (2005). The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change. The Psychological Record, 55(3), 377-400.
- ^ Jensen JP, Bergin AE, Greaves DW (1990). The meaning of eclecticism: New survey and analysis of components. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21(2), pp. 124-130.
- ^ Palmer S, Woolfe R (eds.) (1999). Integrative and eclectic counselling and psychotherapy. London: Sage.
- ISBN 0-8039-8991-1
- ^ Goldfried MR, Wolfe BE (1998). Toward a more clinically valid approach to therapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), pp. 143-150.
- ^ Seligman MEP (1995). The effectiveness of psychotherapy: The Consumer Reports study. American Psychologist, 50(12), pp. 965-974.
- ^ Lowman, R.L. (Ed.) (2002). Handbook of organizational consulting psychology. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
- ISBN 978-0198812746
- ^ "Cyberpsychology Section | BPS".
- ISBN 0-7432-0150-7.
- ^ Myers (2004). Motivation and work. Psychology. New York, NY: Worth Publishers
- ^ McKibben B (1993). The Age of Missing Information, p. 198. London: Penguin.
- ^ Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (2004). Perspectives on Personality (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
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- ^ Dykstra, C. (1986). "Youth and Language of Faith" (PDF). Vol. 81. Religious Education. pp. 163–184. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
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- .
- JSTOR 1387689.
- ISBN 0-8420-2595-2. "How important would you say religion is in your own life -- extremely important, very important, fairly important, or not very important? / Extremely important ....32% / Very important...32% / Fairly important...22% / Not very important...13% / No opinion...1%" (p. 260).
- ISBN 0-8192-1796-4.
- ^ For example, mainly under the header of "Spirituality and Religion", two pages of the Fall 2010 APA Book Catalogue listed 9 books published by APA about the psychology of spirituality/religion (pp. 27, 25). (accessed 19 September 2010)
- ISBN 9781433810770.
- ISBN 978-1-4338-1079-4.
- ISBN 978-1-43381080-0.
- ^ National Association of School Psychologists. "Who are school psychologists?". Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. Retrieved June 1, 2008.