Two-state solution
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Part of a series on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict |
Israeli–Palestinian peace process |
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The two-state solution to the
The first proposal for a separate Jewish and Arab states in the territory was made by the British
The leadership of the
Recent
The major points of contention include the specific boundaries of the two states (though most proposals are based on the
History
The first proposal for the creation of Jewish and Arab states in the
Partition was again proposed by the
The
UN resolution 242 and the recognition of Palestinian rights
After the 1967 Arab–Israeli war, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed resolution 242 calling for Israeli withdrawal from the territories occupied during the war, in exchange for "termination of all claims or states of belligerency" and "acknowledgement of sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every state in the area". The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which had been formed in 1964, strongly criticized the resolution, saying that it reduced the question of Palestine to a refugee problem.[33]: 18
In September 1974, 56 member states proposed that "the question of Palestine" be included as an item in the General Assembly's agenda. In a resolution adopted on 22 November 1974, the General Assembly affirmed Palestinian rights, which included the "right to self-determination without external interference", "the right to national independence and sovereignty", and the "right to return to their homes and property". These rights have been affirmed every year since.[34]: 24
PLO acceptance of a two-state solution
The first indication that the PLO would be willing to accept a two-state solution, on at least an interim basis, was articulated by Said Hammami in the mid-1970s.[35][36]
Security Council resolutions dating back to June 1976 supporting the two-state solution based on the pre-1967 lines were vetoed by the United States,[37] which supports a two-state solution but argued that the borders must be negotiated directly by the parties.
Likud party's insistence on only Israeli sovereignty
The Israeli Likud party, in its manifesto for the 1977 elections which it won in a landslide, declared: "Between the sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty."[38][39][40] Similar statements have been made by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu as late as 18 January 2024.[41]
Palestinian Declaration of Independence
The
The
Diplomatic efforts
This section possibly contains original research. (January 2024) |
In 1975, the General Assembly established the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People. In 1976, the Committee presented two sets of recommendations, one concerned with the Palestinians' right of return to their homes and property, and the other with their rights to self-determination, national independence and sovereignty. The Security Council discussed the recommendations but failed to reach a decision due to the negative vote of the United States.[33]: 25
After the
In 2002, Crown Prince Abdullah of Saudi Arabia (who would go on to be King from 2005 to 2015) proposed the Arab Peace Initiative, which garnered the unanimous support of the Arab League while Israeli leaders continually refuse to discuss the initiative. President Bush announced his support for a Palestinian state, opening the way for United Nations Security Council Resolution 1397, supporting a two-state solution.[44][page needed][45]
At the Annapolis Conference in November 2007, three major parties—The PLO, Israel, and the US—agreed on a two-state solution as the outline for negotiations. However, the summit failed to achieve an agreement.
Following the conflict that erupted between the two main Palestinian parties, Fatah and Hamas, Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip, splintering the Palestinian Authority into two polities, each claiming to be the true representatives of the Palestinian people. Fatah controlled the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank and Hamas Governed in Gaza.
The latest initiatives were the
Viability
By 2010, when direct talks were scheduled to be restarted, continued growth of settlements on the West Bank and continued strong support of settlements by the Israeli government had greatly reduced the land and resources that would be available to a Palestinian state creating doubt among Palestinians and left-wing Israelis that a two-state solution continued to be viable.[46]
In January 2012 the European Union Heads of Mission report on East Jerusalem found that Israel's continuing settlement activities and the fragile situation of the Palestinian population in East Jerusalem, as well in area C, was making a two-state solution less likely.[47] The Israeli Foreign Ministry rejected this EU report, claiming it was "based on a partial, biased and one sided depiction of realities on the ground."[48] In May 2012, the EU council stressed its "deep concern about developments on the ground which threaten to make a two-state solution impossible'.[49]
On 29 November 2012, the
in March 2015, Netanyahu declared that a Palestinian state would not be established during his administration,[55] while he also stated that he disapproved the one-state solution for the ongoing conflict between two people.[56]
After the
A 2021 survey of experts found that 52 percent of respondents believed the two-state solution is no longer possible. If a two-state solution is not achieved, 77 percent predict "a
Settlements in the West Bank
UN resolutions affirm the illegality of settlements in West Bank, including East Jerusalem, including United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334 passed in December 2016.[59] As of November 2023, there are at least 700,000 Israeli settlers in the Occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem across 150 settlements and 128 outposts.[60][61] More than three-quarters of the existing settlements have been constructed since the Oslo Accords.[62]
The establishment and expansion of the illegal settlements in the Occupied West Bank constitute a major challenge to the possibility of a two-state solution by "violating Palestinian sovereignty, threatening civil peace and security, jeopardizing water resources, and blocking agricultural development."[63] This has progressively reduced Area A and B of the West Bank territory to a "shrinking archipelago of enclaves".[62][64]
Proposals have been offered for over 50 post-evacuation compensation of settlers for abandoned property[
Public opinion in Israel and Palestine
Many Palestinians and Israelis, as well as the Arab League,[68] have stated that they would accept a two-state solution based on 1949 Armistice Agreements, more commonly referred to as the "1967 borders". In a 2002 poll conducted by PIPA, 72% of both Palestinians and Israelis supported at that time a peace settlement based on the 1967 borders so long as each group could be reassured that the other side would be cooperative in making the necessary concessions for such a settlement.[69] A 2013 Gallup poll found 70% of Palestinians in the West Bank and 48% of Palestinians in Gaza Strip, together with 52% of Israelis supporting "an independent Palestinian state together with the state of Israel".[70]
Support for a two-state solution varies according to the way the question is phrased. Some Israeli journalists suggest that the Palestinians are unprepared to accept a Jewish State on any terms.
As of 2021, most Palestinians are against the two-state solution. In 2021, a poll by the
The two-state solution enjoyed majority support in Israeli polls although there has been some erosion to its prospects over time.[82] A 2014 Haaretz poll asking "Consider that in the framework of an agreement, most settlers are annexed to Israel, Jerusalem will be divided, refugees won't return to Israel and there will be a strict security arrangement, would you support this agreement?", only 35% of Israelis said yes.[78]
According to a 2021 PCPSR poll, support for a two-state solution among Palestinians and Israeli Jews, as of 2021, had declined to 43 percent and 42 percent, respectively.[80][83] According to Middle East experts David Pollock and Catherine Cleveland, as of 2021, the majority of Palestinians said they wanted to reclaim all of historic Palestine, including pre-1967 Israel. A one-state solution with equal rights for Arabs and Jews was ranked second.[80]
Some researchers argue that the two-state solution has already been implemented because Jordan, which makes up 78% of the former Mandatory Palestine, was originally created as a state for the Arabs.[84][85][86]
In December 2022, support for a two-state solution was 33% among Palestinians, 34% among Israeli Jews, and 60% among Israeli Arabs. 82% of Israeli Jews and 75% of Palestinians believed that the other side would never accept the existence of their independent state.[87]
At the end of October 2023, the two-state solution had the support of 71.9% of Israeli Arabs and 28.6% of Israeli Jews.[88] In that same month, according to Gallup, just 24% of Palestinians supported a two-state solution, a drop from 59% in 2012.[89]
Renewed focus on two-state solution
Following the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel and the subsequent Israel–Hamas war, multiple governments renewed the long-dormant idea of a two-state solution. This received serious pushback from Israel's government, especially from Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu.
Intergovernmental bodies supporting a two-state solution
G7
In the statement issued after their virtual meeting of 6 December 2023, the Leaders of the G7 wrote that they are "committed to a Palestinian state as part of a two-state solution that enables both Israelis and Palestinians to live in a just, lasting, and secure peace."[90]
European Union
Josep Borrell, High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, wrote on 15 November 2023: "We need to work with our regional partners towards [...] the two-state solution [...] it remains the only viable way to bring peace to the region."[91]
In her address to the G20 leaders on 22 November 2023, Ursula von der Leyen, President of the European Commission, said: "We have to [...] work for a two-state solution. This is the only way to ensure lasting peace for Israeli and Palestinian people as neighbours."[92]
Governments supporting a two-state solution
Countries are ordered below by size of GDP.
United States
President Joe Biden has made numerous statements in favour of the two-state solution,[93] as have Secretary of State Antony Blinken[93] and Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin.[94]
China
China's Foreign Minister Wang Yi has stated that "China calls for [...] the formulation of a specific timetable and road map for the implementation of the 'two-state solution'".[95]
Germany
German Chancellor Olaf Scholz has called for a two-state solution,[96][97] as has Minister of Foreign Affairs Annalena Baerbock.[98]
India
India's External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar has stated that "the two state solution is necessary [and] is more urgent than it was before".[99]
United Kingdom
Prime Minister Rishi Sunak and Foreign Secretary David Cameron, have strongly advocated a two-state solution.[100] David Cameron and German Minister of Foreign Affairs Annalena Baerbock published a joint statement, supporting a two-state solution.[98] Keir Starmer, the leader of the opposition Labour Party, has stated that his party is "strongly in favour of a two-state solution".[101]
France
President Emmanuel Macron has advocated a two-state solution.[102]
Canada, Australia and New Zealand
Canada's Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Australia's Prime Minister Anthony Albanese and New Zealand's Prime Minister Christopher Luxon have issued a joint statement, saying "We recommit ourselves to [...] a just and enduring peace in the form of a two-state solution".[103]
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Faisal Bin Farhan has said that Saudi Arabia would be interested in a normalisation deal with Israel that is linked to a two-state solution.[104]
Governments opposing a two-state solution
Countries are ordered below by size of GDP.
Israel
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has repeatedly and emphatically rejected a two-state solution.[105][106]
Iran
President Ebrahim Raisi has rejected a two-state solution, instead proposing a "single state based on ballot boxes involving Palestinians of all faiths".[107]
Non-governmental supporters of a two-state solution
Israel
Ehud Barak, Israel's Prime Minister from 1999 to 2001 and Minister of Defense from 2007 to 2013, told TIME on 6 November 2023 that "The right way is to look to the two-state solution".[108]
Ehud Olmert, Israel's Prime Minister from 2006 to 2009, told Politico on 16 October 2023 that the two-state solution "is the only real political solution for this lifelong conflict".[109] On 6 November 2023, he told CBC that "a two-state solution should still be the goal of the Israeli government".[110]
Ami Ayalon, the head of Israel's Shin Bet internal security service from 1995 to 2000, said on 14 January 2024 in an interview with The Guardian that "Israel will not have security until Palestinians have their own state".[111]
Interviewed by Ezra Klein on 8 December 2023, Nimrod Novik, a member of the executive committee of Commanders for Israel’s Security (CIS), reiterated the CIS's view that the two-state solution is "the only solution that [...] serves Israel’s security and well-being long-term."[112]
North America
New York Times columnist Thomas Friedman has strongly supported President Biden's calls for a two-state solution and criticised Prime Minister Netanyahu's opposition.[113]
Twenty-seven former Jewish leaders of organizations including
Other solutions
The main alternative is the binational solution, which could either be a twin regime federalist arrangement or a unitary state.[116] Other alternatives are the three-state solution and the Allon Plan, also known as the "no-state solution".
Three-state solution
The three-state solution has been proposed as another alternative. The New York Times in 2009[117] reported that Egypt and Jordan were concerned about having to retake responsibility for Gaza and the West Bank. In effect, the result would be Gaza returning to Egyptian rule, and the West Bank to Jordan.[118]
Dual citizenship
A number of proposals for the granting of Palestinian citizenship or residential permits to Jewish settlers in return for the removal of Israeli military installations from the West Bank have been fielded by such individuals[119] as Arafat,[120] Ibrahim Sarsur[121] and Ahmed Qurei.
Israeli Minister Moshe Ya'alon said in April 2010 that "just as Arabs live in Israel, so, too, should Jews be able to live in Palestine." ... "If we are talking about coexistence and peace, why the [Palestinian] insistence that the territory they receive be ethnically cleansed of Jews?"[122]
The idea has been expressed by both advocates of the two-state solution
New-state solution
The New-state solution to the
See also
- List of Middle East peace proposals
- One-state solution
- Palestinianism
- Greater Palestine
- State of Judea
- United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
- Zionism
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{{cite web}}
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Further reading
- Aharon Cohen, Israel and the Arab World (Funk and Wagnalls, New York, 1970).
External links
- The Future of the TwoState Solution, Giora Eiland, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, February 2009 Archived 2012-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
- Two-state solution-discredited – without workable alternative, Beate Zilversmidt, The Other Israel, May 2006 Archived 2017-07-01 at the Wayback Machine
- "Two-State Chimera, No-State Solution". Why there won't ever be two 'states'. Cameron Hunt, Counter Currents, May 2007
- "Banging Square Pegs into Round Holes," Dore Gold, ed. David Pollack, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, December 2008 Archived 2012-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
- "The Middle East conflict and the two-state solution," RearVision, ABC Radio National, September 23, 2009
- Taking the two-state solution seriously[permanent dead link], Opinion by Alain Dieckhoff, March 2009, European Union Institute for Security Studies
- A Demilitarized Palestinian State Archived 2016-11-04 at the Think Tank)