User:Natinsley
Soybean aphid | |
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Species: | glycines
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The soybean aphid (Aphis glycines Matsumura) is an insect pest of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) that is exotic to North America (Ragsdale et al. 2004). The soybean aphid is native to Asia (Blackman and Eastop 2000). It has been described as a common pest of soybean in China (Wang et al. 1962) and as an occasional pest of soybean in Indonesia (Iwaki 1979), Japan (Takahashi et al. 1993), Korea (Chung et al. 1980), Malaysia (Blackman and Eastop 2000), the Philippines (Quimio and Calilung 1993), and Thailand (Paik 1963). The soybean aphid was first documented in North America in Wisconsin in July 2000 (Alleman et al. 2002). Ragsdale et al. (2004) noted that the soybean aphid probably arrived in North America earlier than 2000, but remained undetected for a period of time. Venette and Ragsdale (2004) suggested that Japan probably served as the point of origin for the soybean aphid’s North American invasion. By 2003, the soybean aphid had been documented in Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin (Venette and Ragsdale 2004). Together, these states accounted for 89% of the 63.6 million acres (2.58 × 107 ha) of soybean planted in the United States in 2007 (NASS 2008).
Life history
The soybean aphid possesses a
Eggs begin to hatch into
Feeding by soybean aphids injures
Infestation of soybean aphids on soybean can be classified into three stages (Cheng et al. 1984). The first stage occurs when alatae migrate to soybean in late May and early June. During this stage, small colonies of soybean aphids appear patchy, occurring on single plants scattered throughout a field (Ragsdale et al. 2004). In these early colonies, soybean aphids are typically grouped on tender, young leaves of soybean plants (Shi et al. 1994). As the infested plant ages, soybean aphids remain on leaves near the top of the plant. Studies have demonstrated a positive correlation exists between upper leaf nitrogen content of soybean and the occurrence of soybean aphids (Hu et al. 1992, Wu et al. 2004). Damage to a soybean plant during this initial stage is a result of stylet-feeding and can include curling and stunting of leaves and twigs, physiological delays, and underdevelopment of root tissue (Wang et al. 1962, Hirano 1996). However, the relatively low densities of soybean aphids during this stage have been found to have minimal impacts on soybean yield (Dai and Fan 1991).
The second stage, or pre-peak stage, can begin as early as late June and is characterized by dramatic increases in densities of soybean aphids (Cheng et al. 1984). As colonies expand and temperatures increase, soybean aphids move toward lower portions of the soybean plant (Shi et al. 1994). The optimal temperature for soybean aphid development occurs between 25 and 30°C, and exposure to prolonged temperatures of 35°C decrease survival rates and fecundity of soybean aphids (McCornack et al. 2004). Extremely high population growth rates can be achieved under optimal conditions, with a colony doubling in size in as few as 1.3 days (Venette and Ragsdale 2004).
The final stage of infestation by soybean aphids on soybean, or peak stage, begins in mid- to late July and is characterized by very high densities of soybean aphids (Cheng et al. 1984). As populations grow during this stage, plant damage may become severe. Heavy infestations of soybean aphids may cause plant stunting, distorted
When populations of soybean aphids increase, a need arises for apterae to produce alate offspring to seek out new hosts. This can be due to both deteriorating host plant quality and crowding effects (Lu and Chen 1993). Crowding of nymphal apterae will not cause them to develop into alate adults (Lu and Chen 1993). Crowding effects on alatae can induce alate offspring production as well, although alatae are not as sensitive to crowding as apterae (Lu and Chen 1993). Soybean plants are prevented from becoming super-saturated by emigration of soybean aphids through alate production, which serves to maintain an equilibrium density of soybean aphids (Ito 1953). Decreased body size and lowered fecundity can be induced in soybean aphids when populations reach very high densities (Ito 1953).
As host plant quality begins to deteriorate in late August and early September, soybean aphids take on a paler color and experience decreased growth and reproductive rates (Wang et al. 1962, Ragsdale et al. 2004). High densities of soybean aphids during these late plant stages have less of a significant negative impact on soybean yield (Dai and Fan 1991). During this period of declining temperatures and decreasing rainfall, soybean plants undergo senescence gradually from bottom to top, causing an upward movement of soybean aphids to higher plant tissue (Shi et al. 1994).
After going through approximately 15 generations on soybean, soybean aphids begin to transition back to their primary host, buckthorn. A generation of winged females, gynoparae, develop on soybean and leave for buckthorn when mature (Wang et al. 1962). Simultaneously, an apterous population of soybean aphids remains on soybean to produce alate male sexual morphs (Wang et al. 1962). Factors that positively affect the production of gynoparae and male alatae include declining host plant quality, shortened day length, and lowered temperatures (Hodgson et al. 2005).
While on buckthorn, gynoparae produce a generation of apterous female sexual morphs (
Host plant biology
More than 100
In an experiment to determine alternate primary hosts for soybean aphids, only members of the genus Rhamnus were able to support development of soybean aphids (Voegtlin et al. 2005). In
The most common secondary host in both Asia and North America for soybean aphids is soybean (Ragsdale et al. 2004). Soybean has been cultivated in Asia for 4,000 to 5,000 years and in the
Deleterious effects of soybean aphids on soybean can be highly variable and are influenced by factors like soybean aphid density, plant stage, plant density, and temperature (Dai and Fan 1991, Hirano 1996). In addition, soil nutrient conditions within a soybean field may play some role in the development of infestations of soybean aphids. For example, in a laboratory experiment, soybean aphids that fed on potassium-deficient soybean experienced increased fecundity and survivorship (Myers et al. 2005a). Field experiments failed to corroborate this finding. Myers et al. (2005a) hypothesized that potassium-stress in the laboratory may lead to increased nitrogen availability for soybean aphids. Yield data taken from this experiment showed that potassium-stress in conjunction with infestation by soybean aphids caused significant yield loss.
Specificity for soybean aphids to feed on soybean has been demonstrated by Han and Yan (1985) in an experiment utilizing an electrical penetration graph. While no difference in the amount of time spent probing between soybean and other non-host plants was observed, the ingestion of
Viral transmission
Soybean aphids may indirectly affect plant health through viral transmission.
In
Host plant resistance
Several varieties of
Natural enemies
In
One of the most important predators of soybean aphids in North America is the
Another group of predators that plays a key role in suppression of populations of soybean aphids in North America is
Evidence suggests that populations of lady beetles can respond to increases in populations of soybean aphids in soybean (Van Den Berg et al. 1997). In addition, increases in populations of lady beetles have the ability to inhibit colony growth of soybean aphids throughout the growing season (Han 1997). As
Other foliar-foraging predators that are present North American soybean fields that may play a role in suppression of soybean aphid populations include
Management
The use of
The current
Evidence indicates that foliar insecticide applications can reduce
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External links
- Soybean Aphid at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
- Soybean Aphid at Iowa State University