Kingdom of the Suebi
Kingdom of the Suebi Regnum Suevorum ( Latin) | |||||||||
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409–585 | |||||||||
Capital | Braga | ||||||||
Common languages | Suebi (spoken among elite) Latin (administrative/liturgical) | ||||||||
Religion | Germanic paganism (initially among elite and rural) Arianism (mostly among elite) Chalcedonian Christianity (among commoners) | ||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
King | |||||||||
• 409–438 | Hermeric | ||||||||
• 585 | Malaric | ||||||||
History | |||||||||
• Suebian leader Leovigild of the Visigothic Kingdom | 585 | ||||||||
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Today part of | Gibraltar Spain Portugal |
The Kingdom of the Suebi (
History
Origins
Little is known about the
mentions some Suevi side by side with Alamanni, Quadi, Marcomanni and other Germanic peoples.Additionally it has been pointed out that the lack of mention of the Suevi could mean that they were not per se an older distinct ethnic group, but the result of a recent ethnogenesis, with many smaller groups—among them part of the Quadi and Marcomanni—coming together during the migration from the Danube valley to the Iberian Peninsula.[8][9] Other groups of Sueves are mentioned by Jordanes and other historians as residing by the Danube regions during the 5th and 6th centuries.[8]
Although there is no clearly documented reason behind the migration of 405 , a widely accepted theory is that the migration of the various Germanic peoples west of the Rhine was due to the westward push of the Huns during the late 4th century, which forced the Germanic peoples westward in response to the threat.[10] This theory has created controversy within the academic community, because of the lack of convincing evidence.[citation needed]
Whether displaced by the Huns or not, the Suevi along with the
Settlement and integration
The civil war that erupted in the Iberian Peninsula between the forces of Constantine and Gerontius left the passes through the Pyrenees either purposely or inadvertently neglected, leaving southern Gaul and the Iberian Peninsula vulnerable to barbarian attack. Hydatius documents that the crossing into the Iberian Peninsula by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi took place on either 28 September or 12 October 409.[16] Some scholars take the two dates as the beginning and the end of the crossing of the formidable Pyrenees by scores of thousands, since this could not have been accomplished in one day.[17] Hydatius writes that upon entering Hispania, the barbarian peoples, and even the Roman soldiers, spent 409–410 in a frenzy, plundering food and goods from the cities and countryside, which caused a famine that, according to Hydatius, forced the locals to resort to cannibalism: "[driven] by hunger human beings devoured human flesh; mothers too feasted upon the bodies of their own children whom they had killed and cooked with their own hands."[18] In 411 the various barbarian groups brokered a peace and divided the provinces of Hispania among themselves sorte, "by lot". Many scholars believe that the reference to "lot" may be to the sortes, "allotments," which barbarian federates received from the Roman government, which suggests that the Suevi and the other invaders had signed a treaty with Maximus. There is, however, no concrete evidence of any treaties between the Romans and the barbarians: Hydatius never mentions any treaty, and states that the peace in 411 was brought about by the compassion of the Lord,[19][20] while Orosius asserts that the kings of the Vandals, Alans and Sueves were actively pursuing a pact similar to that of the Visigoths at a later date.[21] The division of the land among the four barbarian groups went as such: the Siling Vandals settled in Hispania Baetica, the Alans were allotted the provinces of Lusitania and Hispania Carthaginensis, and the Hasding Vandals and the Suevi shared the northwestern province of Gallaecia.[20]
The division of Gallaecia between the Suevi and the Hasding Vandals placed the Suevi in the west of the province, by the
The Suebi spoke a Germanic language and classical sources refer to a Suebian language. In particular, the Suebi are associated with the concept of an "Elbe Germanic" group of early dialects spoken by the Irminones, entering Germany from the east, and originating on the Baltic. In late classical times, these dialects, by now situated to the south of the Elbe, and stretching across the Danube into the Roman empire, experienced the High German consonant shift that defines modern High German languages, and in its most extreme form, Upper German.[27] Based on some toponymical data, (Lands of the Buri), named Burio until the High Middle Ages.
The kingdom during the 5th century
History of Galicia |
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King Hermeric
In 416, the Visigoths entered the Iberian Peninsula, sent by the emperor of the West to fight off the barbarians arriving in 409. By 418, the Visigoths, led by their king,
In 429, as the Vandals were preparing their departure to Africa, a Swabian warlord named Heremigarius moved to Lusitania to plunder it, but was confronted by the new Vandal king Gaiseric. Heremigarius drowned in the river Guadiana while retreating; this is the first instance of an armed Suebi action outside the provincial limits of Gallaecia. Then, after the Vandals left for Africa, the Swabians were the only barbarian entity left in Hispania.
King Hermeric spent the remainder of his years solidifying Suevic rule over the entire province of Gallaecia. In 430 he broke the old peace maintained with the locals, sacking central Gallaecia, although the barely romanised Gallaeci, who were reoccupying old
King Rechila
In 438 Hermeric became ill. Having annexed the entirety of the former Roman province of
however, that the Suevi conquest of Baetica and Carthaginensis was limited to raids, and Suevi presence, if any, was minute.In 446, the Romans dispatched to the provinces of Baetica and Carthaginensis the
King Rechiar
The emperor Avitus finally responded to Rechiar's defiance in the autumn of 456, sending the Visigoth king
Competing kings
When the Visigoths disposed of Rechiar, the royal bloodline of Hermeric vanished and the conventional mechanism for Suevi leadership died with it. In 456, one Aioulf took over the leadership of the Sueves. The origins behind Aioulf's ascension are not clear: Hydatius wrote that Aioulf was a Goth deserter, while the historian Jordanes wrote that he was a Warni appointed by Theodoric to govern Gallaecia,[44] and that he was persuaded by the Suevi into this adventure. Either way, he was killed in Porto in June 457, but his rebellion, together with the armed actions of Majorian against the Visigoths, eased the pressure on the Suevi.
In 456, the same year as the execution of Rechiar, Hydatius stated that "the Sueves set up Maldras as their king."[45] This statement suggests that the Suevi as a people may have had a voice in the selection of a new ruler.[46] The election of Maldras would lead to a schism among the Suevi, as some followed another king, named Framta, who died just a year later.[47] Both factions then sought peace with the local Gallaeci.
In 458 the Goths again sent an army into Hispania, which arrived in Baetica in July, thereby depriving the Sueves of this province. This field army stayed in Iberia for several years.
In 460 Maldras was killed, after a reign of four years during which he plundered Sueves and Romans alike, in Lusitania and in the south of Gallaecia past the valley of the Douro river. Meanwhile, the Sueves in the north chose another leader, Richimund, who plundered Gallaecia in 459 and 460. This same year they captured the walled city of Lugo, which was still under the authority of a Roman official. As a response, the Goths sent their army to punish the Suevi who dwelt in the outskirts of the city and nearby regions, but their campaign was revealed by some locals, whom Hydatius considered traitors.[48] From that very moment Lugo became an important centre for the Sueves, and was used as capital by Rechimund.
In the south Frumar succeeded Maldras and his faction, but his death in 464 closed a period of internal dissent among the Sueves, and permanent conflict with the native Gallaecian population.
King Remismund
In 464, Remismund, an ambassador who had travelled between Gallaecia and Gaul on several occasions, became King. Remismund was able to unite the factions of Suevi under his rule, and at the same time restore peace. He was also recognized, perhaps even approved of, by Theodoric, who sent him gifts and weapons along with a wife.[49] Under the leadership of Remismund, the Suevi would again raid the nearby countries, plundering the lands of Lusitania and the Conventus Asturicense, whilst still fighting Gallaeci tribes like the Aunonenses, who refused to submit to Remismund. In 468 they managed to destroy part of the walls of Conímbriga, in Lusitania, which was sacked[50] and then mostly abandoned after the inhabitants fled or were taken back to the north as slaves.[51] The next year they captured Lisbon, which was surrendered by its leader, Lusidio. He later became ambassador of the Suevi to the Emperor. The end of the chronicle of Hydatius in 468 doesn't let us know the later fate of Remismund.
The Suevi probably remained mostly pagan until an Arian missionary named Ajax, sent by the Visigothic king Theodoric II at the request of the Suebic unifier Remismund, converted them in 466 and established a lasting Arian church which dominated the people until their conversion to Catholicism in the 560s.
The Arian period
Little is known of the period between 470 and 550, beyond the testimony of Isidore of Seville, who in the 7th century wrote that many kings reign during this time, all of them Arians. A medieval document named Divisio Wambae mentions one king named Theodemund, otherwise unknown.[52] Other less reliable and very posterior chronicles mention the reign of several kings under the names of Hermeneric II, Rechila II and Rechiar II.[53]
More trustworthy is a stone inscription found in Vairão Portugal, recording the foundation of a church by a Benedictine nun, in 535, under the rule of one Veremund who is addressed as the most serene king Veremund,[54] although this inscription has also been attributed to king Bermudo II of León. Also, thanks to a letter sent by Pope Vigilius to the bishop Profuturus of Braga circa 540, it is known that a certain number of Catholic Orthodox had converted to Arianism, and that some Catholic Orthodox churches had been demolished in the past in unspecified circumstances.[55]
Conversion to Catholic Orthodoxy
The conversion of the Suebi to Orthodoxy is presented very differently in the primary sources. A contemporary record, the minutes of the
Most scholars have attempted to meld these stories. It has been alleged that Chararic and Theodemar must have been successors of Ariamir, since Ariamir was the first Suebic monarch to lift the ban on Orthodox synods; Isidore therefore gets the chronology wrong.
Dahn equated Chararic with Theodemar, even saying that the latter was the name he took upon baptism.[56] It has also been suggested that Theodemar and Ariamir were the same person and the son of Chararic.[56] In the opinion of some historians, Chararic is nothing more than an error on the part of Gregory of Tours and never existed.[62] If, as Gregory relates, Martin of Braga died about the year 580 and had been bishop for about thirty years, then the conversion of Chararic must have occurred around 550 at the latest.[58] Finally, Ferreiro believes the conversion of the Suevi was progressive and stepwise and that Chararic's public conversion was only followed by the lifting of a ban on Orthodox synods in the reign of his successor, which would have been Ariamir; while Theodemar would have been responsible for beginning a persecution of the Arians in his kingdom, to root out their heresy.[63]
Finally, the Suebic conversion is ascribed not to a Suebe, but to a Visigoth, by the chronicler
6th century and annexation
Britons
Sometime late in the 5th century or early in the sixth century, a group of Romano-Britons escaping the Anglo-Saxons settled in the north of the Suebi Kingdom of Gallæcia[64] in lands which subsequently acquired the name Britonia.[65] Most of what is known about the settlement comes from ecclesiastical sources; records from the 572 Second Council of Braga refer to a diocese called the Britonensis ecclesia ("British church") and an episcopal see called the sedes Britonarum ("See of the Britons"), while the administrative and ecclesiastical document usually known as Divisio Theodemiri or Parochiale suevorum, attribute to them their own churches and the monastery Maximi, likely the monastery of Santa Maria de Bretoña.[65] The bishop representing this diocese at the II Council of Braga bore the Brythonic name Mailoc.[65] The see continued to be represented at several councils through the 7th century.
King Ariamir and king Theodemar
On 1 May 561, king Ariamir, who was in the third year of his reign, called the First Council of Braga, being styled The most glorious king Ariamir in the acts. The first Orthodox Council held in the Kingdom, it was almost entirely devoted to the condemnation of Priscillianism, making no mention at all of Arianism, and only once reproving clerics for adorning his clothes and for wearing granos, a Germanic word implying either pigtails, long beard, moustache, or a Suebian knot, a custom declared pagan.[66] Of the eight assistant bishops only one bore a Germanic name, bishop Ilderic.
Later, on 1 January 569, Ariamir's successor, Theodemar, held a council in Lugo,
King Miro
According to
In 572 Miro ordered the celebration of the
.This same year of 572 Miro led an expedition against the
Later, in 579, Liuvigild's son, prince
Last kings
On the death of Miro, his son
This same year, 585, a man named Malaric rebelled against the Goths and reclaimed the throne, but he was finally defeated and captured by the generals of Liuvigild, who took him in chains to the Visigothic king.
Annexation
After the conquest, king Liuvigild reintroduced the Arian Church among the Sueves,[85] but this was a short-lived institution, because after his death in 586 his son Reccared openly promoted the mass conversion of Visigoths and Sueves to Catholicism. Reccared's plans were opposed by a group of Arian conspirators; its leader, Segga, was exiled to Gallaecia, after his hands were amputated. The conversion occurred during the Third Council of Toledo, with the assistance of seventy-two bishops from Hispania, Gaul and Gallaecia. There, eight bishops renounced their Arianism, among them four Suevi:[85] Argiovittus of Porto, Beccila of Lugo, Gardingus of Tui and Sunnila of Viseu. The mass conversion was celebrated by king Reccared: "Not only the conversion of the Goths is found among the favours that we have received, but also the infinite multitude of the Sueves, whom with divine assistance we have subjected to our realm. Although led into heresy by external fault, with our diligence we have brought them to the origins of truth".[86] He was styled as "King of the Visigoths and of the Suevi" in a letter sent to him by Pope Gregory the Great soon after.[87]
Under the Goths, the administrative apparatus of the Suevi Kingdom was initially maintained —many of the Suevi districts established during the reign of Theodemar are also known as later Visigothic mints[88]— but during the middle years of the seventh century an administrative and ecclesiastical reform led to the disappearance of most of these mints, with the exception of that of the cities of Braga, Lugo and Tui. Also the northern Lusitanian bishoprics of Lamego, Viseu, Coimbra and Idanha-a-Velha, in lands which had been annexed to Gallaecia in the fifth century, were returned to the obedience of Mérida. It has been also pointed out that no visible Gothic immigration took place during the 6th and the 7th century into Gallaecia.[89]
The last mention of the Sueves as a separate people dates to a 10th-century gloss in a Spanish codex:[90] "hanc arbor romani pruni vocant, spani nixum, uuandali et goti et suebi et celtiberi ceruleum dicunt" ("This tree is called plum-tree by the Romans; nixum by the Spaniards; the Vandals, the Sueves, the Goths, and the Celtiberians call it ceruleum"), but in this context Suebi probably meant simply Gallaeci.
List of Galician Suebic monarchs
- Hermeric, c. 409–438
- Heremigarius, 427–429, leader in Lusitania
- Rechila, 438–448
- Rechiar, 448–456
- Aioulf, 456–457, foreigner, possibly appointee of the Visigoths
- Maldras, 456–460, in opposition to Framta after 457
- Framta, 457, in opposition to Maldras
- Richimund, 457–464, successor of Framta
- Frumar, 460–464, successor of Maldras
- Remismund, 464–469, succeeded Frumar, reunited the Suebi
- Period of obscurity
- Hermeneric fl. c. 485
- Veremund fl. 535
- Theodemund fl. 6th century
- Chararic, after c.550–558/559, existence sometimes doubted
- Ariamir, 558/559–561/566
- Theodemar, 561/566–570
- Miro, 570–583
- Eboric, 583–584, deposed and put in a monastery by Audeca.
- Audeca, 584–585, deposed and put in a monastery by Liuvigild.
- Malaric, 585, opposed Liuvigild and was defeated.
Sources and controversies
Unlike some other barbarian peoples, such as the Vandals, Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Huns, which played an important part in Rome's loss of the western provinces, the Sueves—establishing themselves in Gallaecia and northern Lusitania, which were remote and extra-Mediterranean areas—seldom posed a threat to Rome and to Rome's interests; in fact, at times where we have more detailed knowledge of their history through a diversity of sources, that is precisely when they became a challenge, as it was under the reign of Rechila. Throughout their history as an independent nation, they maintained an important diplomatic activity,[91] most notably with Rome, the Vandals, the Visigoths, and, later, with the Franks. Again, they become important players during the reign of Miro, in the last third of the 6th century, when they allied with other Catholic powers—the Franks and the Eastern Romans—in support of Hermenegild, and against the Visigothic king Liuvigild. Because of their relative isolation and remoteness, sources about the Suevi people are limited, with the number translated into English even fewer.
The most important source for the history of the Suevi during the 5th century is the chronicle written by the native bishop
Another important source for the history of the Sueves during the initial settlement phase is the Seven Books of History Against the Pagans, by Orosius, another local historian. He painted a very different picture of the initial settlement of Sueves and Vandals, less catastrophic than that narrated by Hydatius. In his narration, Sueves and Vandals, after a violent entrance into Hispania, resume a pacific life, while many poor locals joined them, fleeing from Roman taxes and impositions. However, as has been pointed out, his narration is also biased by his agenda, as he was trying to exculpate Christianity for the fall and decadence of Rome.[97]
The conflict of Vandals and Sueves is also narrated by Gregory of Tours,[98] who in the 6th century narrated the blockade, the death of Gunderic under unknown circumstances, and the resolution of the conflict in a champions' fight, with the defeated Vandals forced to leave Galicia. A somewhat different history apparently was told among the Vandals, as Procopius wrote that in their traditions king Gunderic was captured and impaled by Germans in Spain.[7]
For the mid-fifth century we have also chapter 44 of Jordanes' Getica, which narrates the defeat of the Suevi king Rechiar at the hands of the Roman foederati troops commanded by the Visigoths. It is a vivid, if brief, narration, where Rechiar, a defiant man, has a purpose, a mood, and emotions, as do the rest of the protagonists.
The ending of the Chronicle of Hydatius, in 469, marks the beginning of a period of obscurity in the history of the Sueves, who don't re-emerge into historical light until the mid-sixth century, when we have plenty of sources. Among these, the most notable are the works of the
Of paramount importance is also the chronicle written by John of Biclaro, a Visigoth, circa 590.[97] While probably partial,[86] his accounts are precious for the last 15 years of independence of the Sueves, as well as for the first years of the Sueves under Visigothic rule.
Finally, of great interest is also a history written by Isidore of Seville.[99] He used Hydatius's accounts, together with the Chronicle of John of Biclaro,[100] to form an abridged history of the Suevi in Hispania. The controversy around Isidore's historiography is centered on his omissions and additions, which many historians and scholars consider too numerous to all be simply mistakes. Throughout Isidore's History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Sueves certain details from Hydatius are altered.[101] Many scholars attribute these changes to the fact that Isidore may have had sources other than Hydatius at his disposal.[102]
It has been said that the history and relevance of Suevic Galicia was long marginalised and obscured inside Spain, mainly for political reasons.[103] It was left to a German scholar, Wilhem Reinhart, to write the first connected history of the Suebi in Galicia, or more accurately Gallaecia as the official separation between Galicia and Portugal[104] would only take place in 1095 AD.
Cultural legacy
As the Suebi quickly adopted the local Vulgar Latin language, few traces were left of their Germanic tongue in the Galician and Portuguese languages. Distinguishing between loanwords from Gothic or Suevic is difficult, but there is a series of words, characteristic of Galicia and northern half of Portugal, which are attributed either to the Suebi[105][106] or to the Goths, although no major Visigothic immigration into Gallaecia is known before the 8th century.[89] These words are rural in nature, relative to animals, agriculture, and country life:[26] laverca 'lark' (from Proto-Germanic *laiwazikōn[107] 'lark'),[108] meixengra 'titmouse' (same word as Old Norse meisingr 'titmouse', from *maisōn[107] 'titmouse'),[109] lobio or lóvio 'vinegrape' (to *lauban[107] 'foliage'),[110] britar 'to break' (from *breutanan[107] 'to break'), escá 'bushel' (from ancient scala 'bowl', from *skēlō[107] 'bowl'),[109] ouva 'elf, spirit' (from *albaz[107] 'elf'), marco 'boundary stone' (from PGmc *markan[107] 'frontier, limit'), groba 'gully' (from *grōbō[107] 'groove'),[111] maga 'guts of fish' and esmagar 'to smash' (from PGmc *magōn 'stomach'),[112] bremar 'to yearn' (from PGmc *bremmanan 'to roar'),[113] trousa 'snowslide' (from PGmc *dreusanan 'to fall'),[114] brétema 'mist' (from PGmc *breþmaz 'breath, vapour'),[115] gabar 'to praise',[116] ornear 'to bray' (from PGmc *hurnjanan 'to blow a horn'),[117] zapa 'lid, cap' (from PGmc *tappōn 'tap'),[118] fita 'ribbon',[119] sá 'origin, generation' (from PGmc *salaz 'hall, dwelling'),[120] among others.
Most notable were their contributions to local toponymy and anthroponymy, as personal names borne by the Sueves were in use among Galicians up to the Late Middle Ages, while East Germanic names in general were most common among locals during the High Middle Ages.[121] From these names is derived also a rich toponymy, found mainly in northern Portugal and Galicia,[26] and made up of several thousand place names derived directly from Germanic personal names, expressed as Germanic or Latin genitives:[122] Sandiás, medieval Sindilanes, Germanic genitive form of the name Sindila; Mondariz from the Latin genitive form Munderici Munderic's; Gondomar from Gundemari and Baltar from Baltarii, both in Portugal and Galicia; Guitiriz to Witterici. Another group of toponyms which point to old Germanic settlements are the places named Sa, Saa, Sas, in Galicia, or Sá in Portugal, all derived from the Germanic word *sal- 'house, hall',[106] and distributed mostly around Braga, Porto and in the Minho river valley in Portugal, and around Lugo in Galicia, totalling a few hundred.
In modern Galicia, four parishes and six towns and villages are still named Suevos or Suegos, from the medieval form Suevos, all of them from the Latin Sueuos 'Sueves', and referring to old Suevi settlements.
Notes
- ISBN 88-89840-06-4.
- ISBN 90-6186-722-3.
- S2CID 163755985. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ a b c Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 152
- ^ "Numerous barbarous and savage tribes, that is to say, the Marcomanni, the Quadi, the Vandals, the Sarmatians, the Suebi, in fact the tribes from nearly all of Germany, rose in rebellion"; "Moreover, other nations irresistible in numbers and might who are now oppressing the provinces of Gaul and Spain (namely, the Alans, Suebi, and Vandals, as well as the Burgundians who were driven on by the same movement)"; "two years before the taking of Rome, the nations that had been stirred up by Stilicho, as I have said, that is, the Alans, Suebi, Vandals as well as many others with them, overwhelmed the Franks, crossed the Rhine, invaded Gaul, and advanced in their onward rush as far as the Pyrenees", Paulus Orosius, History against the pagans, VII.15, 38 and 40.
- ^ "Suebi, id est Alamanni", Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, II.2
- ^ a b Procopius, History of the Wars, III.3
- ^ S2CID 162271660. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 13, Late Antiquity: The Late Empire, ed. Averil Cameron and others (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001), s.v. "Barbarian Invasions and first Settlements"
- ^ Megan Williams, Pers. Comm. San Francisco State University History Professor. 16 November 2010.
- ^ Cambridge Ancient History, vol.13 s.v. "Barbarian Invasions and first Settlements"
- ^ Michael Kulikowski, Late Roman Spain and its Cities (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 156–157
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 150
- ^ Kulikowski, Late Roman Spain and its Cities, 156–157
- ISBN 84-96467-02-3.
- ^ Burgess, The Chronicle of Hydatius, 81
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 153
- ^ Burgess, The Chronicle of Hydatius,83
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 154
- ^ a b Burgess, The Chronicle of Hydatius, 83
- ^ "Wallia ... to insure the security of Rome he risked his own life by taking over the warfare against the other tribes that had settled in Spain and subduing them for the Romans. However, the other kings, those of the Alans, the Vandals, and the Suebi, had made a bargain with us on the same terms, sending this message to the emperor Honorius: «Do you be at peace with us all and receive hostages of all; we struggle with one another, we perish to our own loss, but we conquer for you, indeed with permanent gain to your state, if we should both perish.»", Orosius, History against the pagans, VII.43
- ^ "Calliciam Vandali occupant et Suaevi sitam in extremitate Oceani maris occidua", Hyd.41
- ^ Quiroga, Jorge L.; Mónica R. Lovelle (1995–1996). "DE LOS VÁNDALOS A LOS SUEVOS EN GALICIA: Una visión crítica sobre su instalación y organización territorial en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica en el siglo V" (PDF). Studia Historica. Historia Antigua. 13–14: 421–436. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 83
- ^ a b Donini and Ford, Isidore,40
- ^ a b c Arias, Jorge C. (2007), IDENTITY AND INTERACTION:The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans, pp. 37–38, archived from the original on 7 November 2012, retrieved 25 January 2012
- ^ Robinson, Orrin (1992), Old English and its Closest Relatives pages 194-5.
- ^ Domingos Maria da Silva, Os Búrios, Terras de Bouro, Câmara Municipal de Terras de Bouro, 2006. (in Portuguese)
- ^ Domingos Maria da Silva, Os Búrios, Terras de Bouro, Câmara Municipal de Terras de Bouro, 2006.
- ^ Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14, Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, ed. Averil Cameron and others (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001), s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingtom"
- ^ Kulikowski, Late Roman Spain and its Cities, 173
- ^ Hydatius, 92
- ^ Isidorus Hispalensis, Suevorum Historia, 85
- ^ In words of Hydatius: "Rex Rechila Hispali obtenta Beticam et Carthaginensem prouincias in suam redigit potestatem", Hydatius, 115
- ^ Kulikowski, Late Roman Spain and its Cities, 180–181
- ^ Cambridge Ancient History, col. 14., s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingdom"
- ^ Kulikowski, Late Roman Spain and its Cities, 183–184
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 168
- ^ Hydatius, 134
- ^ Hydatius, 165
- ^ Jordanes, Getica, XLIV
- ^ Hydatius, 166
- ^ Gillett, "The Birth of Ricimer", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 44 (1995), p. 382
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 168–169
- ^ Burgess, The Chronicles of Hydatius, 111
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 166
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 167
- ^ Hydatius, 196
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 167–168
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 171
- ^ Hydatius, 237
- ISBN 84-96403-54-8.
- ISBN 978-84-8158-526-1.
- ^ Ferreiro, Alberto (1997). "VEREMUNDU R(EG)E: REVISITING AN INSCRIPTION FROM SAN SALVADOR DE VAIRÃO (PORTUGAL)" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 116: 263–272. Retrieved 30 January 2012.
- ^ Gonzalez, Francisco Antonio (1850). Coleccion de Cánones de la Iglesia Española, II. pp. 1018–1023.
- ^ a b c d Thompson, 86.
- ^ Ferreiro, 198 n8.
- ^ a b Thompson, 83.
- ISBN 84-85319-11-7.
- ^ Thompson, 87.
- ^ Ferreiro, 199.
- ^ Thompson, 88.
- ^ Ferreiro, 207.
- ISBN 84-95622-58-0.
- ^ a b c Koch, John T. (2006). "Britonia". In John T. Koch, Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, p. 291.
- ^ Gonzalez, Francisco Antonio (1850). Coleccion de Cánones de la Iglesia Española, II. p. 614.
- ^ Ferreiro, 199 n11.
- ^ David, Pierre (1947). Études historiques sur la Galice et le Portugal du VIe au XIIe siècle. Livraria Portugália Editora. pp. 19–82.
- ^ "ad ipsum locum Lucensem grandis erat semper conventio Suevorum", cf. Novo Güisán, José Miguel (1997–1998). "Lugo en los tiempos oscuroslas menciones literarias de la ciudad entre los siglos V y X (III)" (PDF). Boletín do Museo Provincial de Lugo. 8 (2): 177–194. Retrieved 30 January 2012.
- ^ "Martin of Braga: Formula Vitae Honestae". www.thelatinlibrary.com.
- ^ Iohannes Biclarensis, Chronicon
- ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14., s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingdom"
- ISBN 84-206-1321-5.
- ^ Cf. Arias, Jorge C. (2007), IDENTITY AND INTERACTION:The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans, pp. 27–28, archived from the original on 7 November 2012, retrieved 25 January 2012
- ^ Cf. Arias, Jorge C. (2007), IDENTITY AND INTERACTION:The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans, pp. 30–31, archived from the original on 7 November 2012, retrieved 25 January 2012
- ^ History of the Franks, V.41
- ISBN 84-206-1321-5.
- ^ Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, VI.43
- ISBN 84-206-1321-5.
- ISBN 84-206-1321-5.
- ^ Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, V.43.
- ^ Iohannes Blicarensis, Chrocicon.
- ISBN 84-206-1321-5.
- ^ Donini and Ford
- ^ a b Thompson 1979, 105
- ^ a b Ferreiro, Alberto (1986). "The omission of Saint Martin of Braga in John of Biclaro's Chronica and the third council of Toledo". Antigüedad y Cristianismo. III: 145–150. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
- ^ Gonzalez, Francisco Antonio (1850). Coleccion de Cánones de la Iglesia Española, II. p. 1030.
- ^ Díaz, Pablo C. (2004). "Minting and administrative organization in late antique Gallaecia" (PDF). Zephyrvs. 57: 367–375. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 November 2011. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-86078-136-3.
- ^ García Turza, Claudio (2004). "El Códice Emilianense 31 de la Real Academia de la Historia. Presentación de algunas de las voces de interés para el estudio lingüístico del latín medieval y del iberorromance primitivo". Aemilianense. I: 95–170 [111]. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
- ^ Cf. Gillett (2003), and Arce (2005) p. 134
- ^ R.W. Burgess, Trans., The Chronicle of Hydatius (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1993), 3
- ^ Burgess, The Chronicle of Hydatius, 4
- ^ Burgess, The Chronicle if Hydatius, 5
- ^ "Vituperation of barbarians as untrustworthy was an ancient commonplace", Gillett (2003) pp. 55-56
- ^ E.A. Thompson, Romans and Barbarians (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 1.
- ^ a b Arias, Jorge C. (2007), IDENTITY AND INTERACTION:The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans, p. 5, archived from the original on 7 November 2012, retrieved 25 January 2012
- ^ Scholasticus, Fredegarius; Jacobs, Alfred (1862), History of the Franks II.2
- ^ Guido Donini and Gordon B. Ford, Jr., Trans., Isidore of Seville's History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1966), VIII.
- ^ Arias, Jorge C. (2007), IDENTITY AND INTERACTION:The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans, p. 6, archived from the original on 7 November 2012, retrieved 25 January 2012
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 217–218
- ^ Thompson, Romans and Barbarians, 219
- ^ As writer-historian Xoán Bernárdez Vilar has pointed out, cf. Varias investigacións recuperan a memoria do Reino Suevo, archived from the original on 2 December 2005
- ^ Corbal, Margarita Vazquez. ""The southwestern border between Galicia and Portugal during the 12th and 13th century 13th centuries: a space for" – via www.academia.edu.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 978-84-7154-037-9.
- ^ ISBN 84-344-8261-4
- ^ ISBN 90-04-12875-1.
- ^ DCECH s.v. laverca
- ^ a b Kremer 2004: 140
- ^ Kremer 2004: 146
- ^ DCECH s.v. grabar
- ^ DCECH s.v. amagar; Orel 2003 s.v. *magōn
- ^ DCECH s.v. bramar; Orel 2003 s.v. *brem(m)anan
- ^ DCECH s.v. trousa; Orel 2003 s.v. *dreusanan
- ^ DCECH s.v. brétema
- ^ DCECH s.v. gabarse
- ^ DCECH s.v. rebuznar; Orel 2003 s.v. *hurnjanan
- ^ DCECH s.v. tapa; Orel 2003 s.v. *tappōn
- ^ DCECH s.v. veta
- ^ Kremer 2004: 139-140; Orel 2003 s.v. *saliz
- ISBN 978-3-484-55512-9.
- ^ Sachs, Georg (1932). Die germanischen Orstnamen in Spanien und Portugal. Leipzig: Jena.
Bibliography
- Arce, Javier (2005). Bárbaros y romanos en Hispania (400 - 507 A.D.). Madrid: Marcial Pons Historia. ISBN 84-96467-02-3.
- Arias, Jorge C. (2007). "Identity and Interaction: The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans." University of Virginia: Spring 2007.
- Burgess, R. W., ed. (1993). The Chronicle of Hydatius. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1993.
- Cameron, Averil and others, ed. (2001a). Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 13, Late Antiquity: The Late Empire A.D. 337–425. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Press, 2001.
- Cameron, Averil and others, ed. (2001b). Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14, Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors A.D. 425–600. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Press, 2001.
- DCECH = Coromines, Joan (2012). Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico. Madrid: Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-3654-9.
- Donini, Guido and Gordon B. Ford Jr., transl. (1970). Isidore of Seville’s History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi, 2nd rev. ed. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1970.
- Ferreiro, Alberto (1995). "Braga and Tours: Some Observations on Gregory's De virtutibus sancti Martini. Journal of Early Christian Studies. 3 (1995), p. 195–210.
- ISBN 978-0521813495.
- Hummer, Hans J. (March 1998). "The fluidity of barbarian identity: the ethnogenesis of Alemanni and Suebi, AD 200–500" (PDF). Early Medieval Europe. 7 (1): 1–27. S2CID 162271660. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- Kremer, Dieter (2004). El elemento germánico y su influencia en la historia lingüística peninsular, in Rafael Cano, Historia de la lengua española. ISBN 84-344-8261-4, p. 133-148.
- Kulikowski, Michael (2004). Late Roman Spain and its Cities. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.
- Pitts, Lynn F. (1989). "Relations between Rome and the German 'Kings' on the Middle Danube in the First to Fourth Centuries A.D." (PDF). The Journal of Roman Studies. 79: 45–58. S2CID 163755985. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- Orel, Vladimir (2003). A Handbook of Germanic Etymology. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12875-0.
- Sachs, Georg (1932). Die germanischen Ortsnamen in Spanien und Portugal. Leipzig: Jena.
- Thompson, E.A. (1969). The Goths in Spain. London: Clarendon. ISBN 978-0-19-814271-3.
- Thompson, E. A. (1980). The Conversion of the Spanish Suevi to Catholicism. Visigothic Spain: New Approaches. ed. ISBN 0-19-822543-1.
- Thompson, E. A. (1982). Romans and Barbarians. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982.
- Williams, Megan: Personal Communication, San Francisco State University History Professor. 16 November 2010.
External links
TVG documentary (in Galician) | |
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O reino suevo de Galicia. Episode 1 | |
O reino suevo de Galicia. Episode 2 |
- The Chronicle of Hydatius is the main source for the history of the suevi in Galicia and Portugal up to 468.
- Medieval Galician anthroponomy
- Minutes of the Councils of Braga and Toledo, in Collectio Hispana Gallica Augustodunensis
- Orosius, Historiarum Adversum Paganos, Book VII - translated by I.W. Raymond