Abdul Qadeer Khan
Abdul Qadeer Khan | |
---|---|
Known for | Pakistan's nuclear weapons program, gaseous diffusion, martensite and graphene morphology |
Spouse |
Hendrina Reternik (m. 1963) |
Children | 2 |
Awards | Metallurgical engineering |
Institutions | Khan Research Laboratories GIK Institute of Technology Hamdard University Urenco Group |
Thesis | The effect of morphology on the strength of copper-based martensites (1972) |
Doctoral advisor | Martin J. Brabers[1] |
Ishfaq Ahmad | |
Succeeded by | Atta-ur-Rahman |
Personal details | |
Political party | Tehreek-e-Tahaffuz-e-Pakistan (2012–2013) |
Website | draqkhan.com.pk |
Abdul Qadeer Khan,
An
In January 2004, Khan was subjected to a debriefing by the
Khan was accused of selling nuclear secrets illegally and was put under house arrest in 2004. After years of house arrest, Khan successfully filed a lawsuit against the
After his death on 10 October 2021, he was given a state funeral at Faisal Mosque before being buried at the H-8 graveyard in Islamabad.
Early life and education
Abdul Qadeer Khan was born on 1 April 1936, in
His father, Abdul Ghafoor, was a schoolteacher who once worked for the Ministry of Education, and his mother, Zulekha, was a housewife with a very religious mindset.[18] His older siblings, along with other family members, had emigrated to Pakistan during the partition of India in 1947, who would often write to Khan's parents about the new life they had found in Pakistan.[19]
After his
From 1956 to 1959, Khan was employed by the
In 1962, while on vacation in The Hague, he met Hendrina "Henny" Reternik – a British passport holder who had been born in South Africa to Dutch expatriates. She spoke Dutch and had spent her childhood in Africa before returning with her parents to the Netherlands where she lived as a registered foreigner. In 1963, he married Henny in a modest Muslim ceremony at Pakistan's embassy in The Hague. Khan and Henny together had two daughters, Dina Khan - who is a doctor, and Ayesha Khan.[26][27][28]
In 1967, Khan obtained an
Career in Europe
In 1972, Khan joined the Physics Dynamics Research Laboratory (or in
Uranium enrichment is an extremely difficult process because
Frits Veerman, Khan's colleague at FDO, uncovered nuclear espionage at Almelo where Khan had stolen designs of the centrifuges from URENCO for the nuclear weapons programme of Pakistan.[36] Veerman became aware of the espionage when Khan had taken classified URENCO documents home to be copied and translated by his Dutch-speaking wife and had asked Veerman to photograph some of them.[37][38] In 1975, Khan was transferred to a less sensitive section when URENCO became suspicious and he subsequently returned to Pakistan with his wife and two daughters. Khan was sentenced in absentia to four years in prison in 1983 by the Netherlands for espionage but the conviction was later overturned due to a legal technicality.[39] Ruud Lubbers, Prime Minister of the Netherlands at the time, later said that the General Intelligence and Security Service (BVD) was aware of Khan's espionage activities but he was allowed to continue due to pressure from the CIA, with the US backing Pakistan during the Cold War.[40][41] This was also highlighted when despite Archie Pervez (Khan's associate for nuclear procurement in the US) being convicted in 1988, no action was taken against Khan or his proliferation network by the US government which needed the support of Pakistan during the Soviet–Afghan War.[42]
Henk Slebos , a Dutch engineer and businessman who had studied metallurgy with Khan at the Delft University of Technology, continued providing goods needed for enriching uranium to Khan in Pakistan through his company Slebos Research. Slebos was sentenced in 1985 to one year in prison but the sentence was reduced on appeal in 1986 to six months of probation and a fine of 20,000 guilders. Though Slebos continued to export goods to Pakistan and was again sentenced to one year in prison and a fine of around €100,000 was imposed on his company.[43][44]
Ernst Piffl, was convicted and sentenced to three and a half years in prison by Germany in 1998 for supplying nuclear centrifuge parts through his company Team GmbH to Khan's Khan Research Laboratories in Kahuta.[45] Asher Karni, a Hungarian-South African businessman was sentenced to three years in prison in the US for the sale of restricted nuclear equipment to Pakistan through Humayun Khan (an associate of A. Q. Khan) and his Pakland PME Corporation.[46]
Scientific career in Pakistan
Smiling Buddha and initiation
Upon learning of India's surprise nuclear test, '
Unbeknownst to Khan, his nation's scientists were already working towards feasibility of the atomic bomb under a secretive
The next day, Khan met with Munir Ahmad and other senior scientists where he focused the discussion on production of
Khan Research Laboratories and atomic bomb program
In April 1976, Khan joined the
Upon reviewing the report, Bhutto sensed a great danger as the scientists were split between military-grade uranium and plutonium and informed Khan to take over the enrichment division from Mahmood, who separated the program from PAEC by founding the
The PAEC did not forgo their
In the military circles, Khan's scientific ability was well recognised and was often known with his moniker "Centrifuge Khan"[35]: 151 and the national laboratory was renamed after him upon the visit of President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in 1983.[54] In spite of his role, Khan was never in charge of the actual designs of the nuclear devices, their calculations, and eventual weapons testing which remained under the directorship of Munir Ahmad Khan and the PAEC.[54]
The PAEC's senior scientists who worked with him and under him remember him as "an
Nuclear tests: Chagai-I
Many of his theorists were unsure that military-grade uranium would be feasible on time without the centrifuges, since Alam had notified PAEC that the "blueprints were incomplete" and "lacked the scientific information needed even for the basic gas-centrifuges."[48]: 75–76 [35]: 145–146 Calculations by Tasneem Shah, and confirmed by Alam, showed that Khan's earlier estimation of the quantity of uranium needing enrichment for the production of weapon-grade uranium was possible, even with the small number of centrifuges deployed.[48]: 77
Khan produced the designs of the centrifuges from
Scientists have said that Khan would have never got any closer to success without the assistance of Alam and others.[57] The issue is controversial;[48]: 79 Khan maintained to his biographer that when it came to defending the "centrifuge approach" and really putting work into it, both Shah and Alam refused.[48]: 79–80
Khan was also very critical of PAEC's concentrated efforts towards developing a plutonium '
Though he had helped to come up with the centrifuge designs, and had been a long-time proponent of the concept, Khan was not chosen to head the development project to test his nation's first nuclear-weapons (his reputation of a thorny personality likely played a role in this[59]) after India conducted its series of nuclear tests, 'Pokhran-II' in 1998.[59] Intervention by the Chairman Joint Chiefs, General Jehangir Karamat, allowed Khan to be a participant and eye-witness his nation's first nuclear test, 'Chagai-I' in 1998.[59][53] At a news conference, Khan confirmed the testing of the boosted fission devices while stating that it was KRL's highly enriched uranium (HEU) that was used in the detonation of Pakistan's first nuclear devices on 28 May 1998.[53]
Many of Khan's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a small part in, and in response, he authored an article, "Torch-Bearers", which appeared in
Proliferation controversy
In the 1970s, Khan had been very vocal about establishing a network to acquire imported electronic materials from the Dutch firms and had very little trust of PAEC's domestic manufacturing of materials, despite the government accepting PAEC's arguments for the long term sustainability of the nuclear weapons program.
In 1982, an unnamed Arab country reached out to Khan for the sale of centrifuge technology. Khan was very receptive to the financial offer, but one scientist alerted the Zia administration which investigated the matter, only for Khan to vehemently deny such an offer was made to him.
Court controversy and U.S. objections
In 1979, the
In 1979, the Zia administration, which was making an effort to keep their
In 1996, Khan again appeared on his country's news channels and maintained that "at no stage was the program of producing 90% weapons-grade enriched uranium ever stopped", despite
North Korea, Iran, and Libya
The innovation and improved designs of centrifuges were marked as classified for export restriction by the Pakistan government, though Khan was still in possession of earlier designs of centrifuges from when he worked for URENCO in the 1970s.
On multiple occasions, Khan levelled accusations against Benazir Bhutto's administration of providing secret enrichment information, on a compact disc (CD), to North Korea; these accusations were denied by Benazir Bhutto's staff and military personnel.[77]: 113–114 [78][79]
Between 1987 and 1989, Khan secretly leaked knowledge of centrifuges to Iran without notifying the Pakistan Government,[79] although this issue is a subject of political controversy.[73][71] In 2003, the European Union pressured Iran to accept tougher inspections of its nuclear program and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) revealed an enrichment facility in the city of Natanz, Iran, utilising gas centrifuges based on the designs and methods used by URENCO.[78] The IAEA inspectors quickly identified the centrifuges as P-1 types, which had been obtained "from a foreign intermediary in 1989", and the Iranian negotiators turned over the names of their suppliers, which identified Khan as one of them.[78] Heinz Mebus, a German engineer and businessman and college friend of Khan, was named as one of the suppliers - acting as a middleman for Khan.[80]
In May 1998,
In 2003,
The "A. Q. Khan network" involved numerous
Security hearings, pardon, and aftermath
Starting in 2001, Khan served as an adviser on science and technology in the
On 5 February 2004, President
In 2007, the U.S. and European Commission politicians as well as IAEA officials had made several strong calls to have Khan interrogated by IAEA investigators, given the lingering scepticism about the disclosures made by Pakistan, but Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz, who remained supportive of Khan and spoke highly of him, strongly dismissed the calls by terming it as "case closed".[96]
In 2008, the security hearings were officially terminated by
Government work, academia, and political advocacy
Khan's strong advocacy for
At the height of the proliferation controversy in 2007, Khan was paid tribute by Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz on state television while commenting in the last part of his speech, Aziz stressed: "The services of [nuclear] scientist ... Dr. [Abdul] Qadeer Khan are "unforgettable" for the country".[96]
In the 1990s, Khan secured a fellowship with the
In 2012, Khan announced the formation of a conservative political advocacy group, Tehreek-e-Tahaffuz-e-Pakistan ('Movement for the Protection of Pakistan'). It was subsequently dissolved in 2013.[103]
Illness and death
In August 2021, Khan was admitted to Khan Research Laboratories Hospital after testing positive for COVID-19.[104] Khan died on 10 October 2021, at the age of 85, after being transferred to a hospital in Islamabad with lung problems.[105] He was given a state funeral at the Faisal Mosque before being buried at the H-8 graveyard in Islamabad.[106]
The Prime Minister of Pakistan, Imran Khan, expressed grief over his death in a tweet adding that "for the people of Pakistan he was a national icon". President of Pakistan Arif Alvi also expressed sadness adding that "a grateful nation will never forget his services".[106]
Legacy
During his time in the atomic bomb project, Khan pioneered research in the thermal quantum field theory and condensed matter physics, while he co-authored articles on chemical reactions of the highly unstable isotope particles in the controlled physical system.[107] He maintained his stance of the use of controversial technological solutions to both military and civilian problems, including the use of military technologies for civilian welfare. Khan also remained a vigorous advocate for a nuclear testing program and defence strength through nuclear weapons. He justified Pakistan's nuclear deterrence program as sparing his country the fate of Iraq or Libya.[108] In an interview in 2011, Khan maintained his stance on peace through strength and vigorously defended the nuclear weapons program as part of the deterrence policy:
[P]akistan's motivation for nuclear weapons arose from a need to prevent "nuclear blackmail" by India. Had Iraq and Libya been nuclear powers, they wouldn't have been destroyed in the way we have seen recently. ... If (Pakistan) had an [atomic] capability before 1971, we [Pakistanis] would not have lost half of our country after a disgraceful defeat.
— Abdul Qadeer Khan, statement on 16 May 2011, published in Newsweek[109]
During his work on the nuclear weapons program and onwards, Khan faced heated and intense criticism from his fellow theorists, most notably Pervez Hoodbhoy who contested his scientific understanding in quantum physics.[110] In addition, Khan's false claims that he was the "father" of the atomic bomb project since its inception and his personal attacks on Munir Ahmad Khan caused even greater animosity from his fellow theorists, and most particularly, within the general physics community, such as the Pakistan Physics Society.[111][110]
Various motivations have been cited for Khan's role in the proliferation of nuclear weapons. According to the editor-in-chief of
Bruno Tertrais, a senior researcher at the Foundation for Strategic Research states: "Khan's motivations were complex and evolving (...) The primary motivation seems to have been to ensure the legitimacy of his role in building Pakistan's nuclear force (...) The second motivation, which has become more important over time, is personal enrichment. Finally, the third important element of varying importance depending on the hypothesis: Khan's more or less diffuse desire to see other Muslim countries access nuclear power."[115]
In spite of the proliferation controversy and his volatile personality, Khan remained a popular public figure and has been as a symbol of national pride with many in Pakistan who see him as a national hero.[108][97] While Khan has been bestowed with many medals and honours by the federal government and universities in Pakistan, Khan also remains the only citizen of Pakistan to have been honoured twice with the Nishan-e-Imtiaz.[116][117]
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Publications
Selected research papers and patents
Nuclear and material physics
- Dilation investigation of metallic phase transformation in 18% Ni maraging steels, Proceedings of the International Conf. on Martensitic Transformations (1986), The Japan Institute of Metals, pp. 560–565.
- The spread of Nuclear weapons among nations: Militarization or Development, pp. 417–430. (Ref. Nuclear War Nuclear Proliferation and their consequences "Proceedings of the 5th International Colloquium organised by the Group De Bellerive Geneva 27–29 June 1985", Edited by: Sadruddin Aga Khan, Published by Clarendon Press-Oxford 1986).
- Flow-induced vibrations in Gas-tube assembly of centrifuges. Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 23(9) (September 1986), pp. 819–827.
- Dimensional anisotropy in 18% of maraging steel,[119] Seven National Symposium on Frontiers in Physics, written with Anwar-ul-Haq, Mohammad Farooq, S. Qaisar, published at the Pakistan Physics Society (1998).
- Electron-beam rapid solidification,[107] Proceedings of the Second National Symposium on Frontiers in Physics, written with A. Tauqeer, Fakhar Hashmi, publisher Pakistan Physics Society(1988).
Books
- Khan, Abdul Qadeer (1972). Advances in Physical Metallurgy (in English, German, and Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press.
- Khan, Abdul Qadeer (1983). Metallurgical Thermodynamics and Kinetics (in English, German, and Dutch). Islamabad, Pakistan: The Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences.
- Khan, Abdul Qadeer; Hussain, Syed Shabbir; ISBN 978-969-35-0821-5.
See also
- Dr. A. Q. Khan Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology
- Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories
- Pakistani missile research and development program
- Conservatism in Pakistan
- Nuclear espionage
- Nuclear arms race
- Nuclear Secrets, 2007 documentary series about the nuclear race and proliferation including Khan's role therein
- Anwar Ali (physicist), Pakistani physicist charged with nuclear proliferation
- Peter Finke, German physicist in the nuclear weapons programme of Pakistan
Notes
- ^ Though other people such as Munir Ahmad Khan and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto have also been accorded that title.[4] Khan has also been titled Mohsin-e-Pakistan (lit. 'Protector of Pakistan') by the local media.[2][5]
References
Citations
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He wrote in Jang that his ancestors came down from Tirah in Khyber Agency and settled in Bhopal in central India. His mother was from Tirah while his father was an Uzbek who came to India with Sultan Shahabuddin Ghauri and defeated the Hindu Rajput ruler, Prithvi Raj. Dr Khan cleverly named his missile Ghauri after India named its missile Prithvi!
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- ^ ISBN 969-8500-00-6
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- ^ See: Project Hydrogen
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The services of Nuclear Scientist Dr. Qadeer Khan are unforgettable for the country; we will not hand him over to any other country ...
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- ^ "Dr Abdul Qadeer disappointed with PM Imran for not inquiring after his health". Dawn. 13 September 2021. Archived from the original on 8 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
- ^ "Abdul Qadeer Khan: 'Father of Pakistan's nuclear bomb' dies". BBC News. 10 October 2021. Archived from the original on 10 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
- ^ a b "Nuclear scientist Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan given state funeral, laid to rest in Islamabad". Dawn. 10 October 2021. Archived from the original on 11 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
- ^ a b "Frontiers in Physics" (PDF). 13 December 1988. Proceedings of the Second National Symposium on Frontiners in Physics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
- ^ GEO TV (17 May 2011). "Nuclear capability saved Pakistan". Geo Television Network (GTN). GEO News (GNews). Archived from the originalon 20 May 2011. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
- ^ Khan, Abdul Qadeer (17 May 2011). "I saved my country from nuclear blackmail". The Tribune. Archived from the original on 18 September 2011. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ a b Hoodbhoy, Pervez (4 May 1999). "Bombs, Missiles and Pakistani Science: The Chaghi tests, and more recent Ghauri-II and Shaheen-I missile launches, have been deemed heroic symbols of high scientific achievement... Are they?". Chowk.com. Archived from the original on 3 January 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2016.
- ^ (IISS), International Institute for Strategic Studies (2006). "Bhutto was father of Pakistan's Atom Bomb Program". International Institute for Strategic Studies. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2016.
- ^ Le Livre noir de l'économie mondiale - p. 61.
- Times of India. 2004.
- DAWN.COM. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
- ^ "Le "père" de la bombe atomique pakistanaise est libre". Le Figaro (in French). February 2009.
- ^ Abdul Qadeer Khan (HI, NI & Bar) remains the only Pakistani who got the Nishan-i-Imtiaz, the highest civil award twice. He also got the Hilal-i-Imtiaz, along with Munir Ahmad Khan, in 1989. A
- ^ Shabbir, Usman, Remembering Unsung Heroes: Munir Ahmed Khan, Defence Journal, 27 June 2004
- ^ Khan, Abdul Qadeer (1998). "Islamic Academy of Sciences Fellowship members". Islamic Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 28 January 2002.
- ^ Murtaza, Ghulam; Zhahour Ahmad (21 November 1998). "Condense Matter Physics" (PDF). Seven National Symposium on Frontiers in Physics. 7. 7 (7): 2/3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
Bibliography
- Burr, William. "The 'Labors of Atlas, Sisyphus, or Hercules'? US Gas-Centrifuge Policy and Diplomacy, 1954–60." The International History Review 37.3 (2015): 431–457.
- Khan, Abdul Qadeer (2010). "Sehar Honay Tak: Dr. A.Q. Khan gave us the sense of security, Javed Hashmi.". In Khan, Abdul Qadeer (ed.). Sehar Honay Tak. Islamabad, Pakistan: Ali Masud books. pp. 1–158.[clarification needed]
- Upadhyaya, Gopal S. (2011). "Dr. A.Q. Khan of Pakistan". Men of Metals and Materials: My Memoires. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse.com. pp. 138–140.
- Rahman, Shahid (1998). "Dr. A. Q. Khan: Nothing Succeed like Success". In Rahman, Shahid (ed.). Long Road to Chagai. Islamabad, Pakistan: Printwise publication. pp. 49–60. ISBN 969-8500-00-6.
- Fitzpatrick, Mark (2007). "Dr. A. Q. Khan and the rise and fall of proliferation network". Nuclear black markets. London, UK: International Institute for Strategic Studies. ISBN 978-0-86079-201-7.
- Kan, Shirley A. (2009). "A.Q. Khan's nuclear network". China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy issues. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. pp. 5–6.
- Cooney, Thomas E.; Denny, David Anthony, eds. (2005). "A.Q. Khan and the nuclear market". E=mc²: Today's Nuclear Equation. Washington, DC: United States: Judith S. Seagal. pp. 30–33.[clarification needed]
- Bernstein, Jeremy (2008). Physicists on Wall Street and other essays on science and society. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0387765068.
Web links
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External links
- Official website
- Abdul Quadeer Khan at the Pakistan Academy of Sciences
- Prof. Abdul Qadeer Khan at the Islamic Academy of Sciences
- Why He Went Nuclear by Douglas Frantz and Catherine Collins
Written by Abdul Qadeer Khan
- Heart disease Random thoughts 11 June 2012
- More on thalassemia 4 June 2012
- Memorable Karachi 28 May 2012
- Great expectations 14 May 2012
- Mass graves 30 April 2012
- I saved my country 1 November 2012
Online books
- Scott-Clark, Adrian Levy & Catherine (2007). Deception: Pakistan, the United States, and the secret trade in nuclear weapons (1st ed.). New York: Walker & Co. ISBN 978-0-8027-1554-8.
- Upadhyaya, Gopal S. (1 May 2011). "Dr. A.Q. Khan of Pakistan". Men of metals and materials: my memoirs. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-4620-1840-6.