Uzbeks
This section may contain material not related to the topic of the article.(October 2023) ) |
Oʻzbeklar Ўзбеклар اۉزبېکلر | |
---|---|
Regions with significant populations | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Sunni Islam[13] | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples; Tajiks |
The Uzbeks (
Etymology
The origin of the word Uzbek is disputed. One view holds that it is eponymously named after Oghuz Khagan, also known as Oghuz Beg, became the word Uzbek.[15] Another theory states that the name means independent, genuine man, or the lord himself, from Öz (self) and the Turkic title bek/bey/beg. A third theory holds that the variant Uz, of the word uğuz, earlier oğuz, united with the word bek to form Uğuz-bek > Uz-bek, meaning "leader of an oğuz".[16]
The personal name "Uzbek" is found in Arabic and Persian historical writings. Historian Usama ibn Munqidh (d. 1188), describing the events in Iran under the Seljuk Empire, notes that one of the leaders of Bursuk's troops in 1115–1116 was the "emir of the troops" Uzbek, the ruler of Mosul.[17] According to Rashid ad-din, the last representative of the Oghuz dynasty of Ildegizids who ruled in Tabriz was Uzbek Muzaffar 1210–1225.[18]
The name Uzbek seems to have become widely adopted as an ethnonym under the rule of
Origins
Before the 5th century, what is today's Uzbekistan was part of
From the fifth to sixth century, what is today's Uzbekistan was part of the
The Turkic component was part of the Kidarites in the fifth century. The seal of the Kidarites, made in the 5th century in Samarkand, has a Bactrian inscription containing the title of the ruler: "Oglar Khun", of Turkic origin.[22]
Since the entry of Central Asia into the Turkic Khaganate (6th century), the process of Turkicization has intensified. In subsequent centuries, the main ethnocultural process that took place on the territory of the Central Asian interfluve was the convergence and partial merging of the settled, Iranian-speaking and Turkic-speaking, with the nomadic, mainly Turkic-speaking population.[23]
Turkic and Chinese migration into Central Asia occurred during the Chinese
Although
- the Turkicized, formerly Iranian-speaking sedentary Sarts, a composite population including both Iranians (Sakas, Sogdians, Khwarzamians, Kushano-Bactrians) and some Arab elements;
- the pre-Uzbek amalgam of nomadic Türk(î) or Chagatays, who consisted of Mongol and Timurid conquests and invasions.
- The East Kipchak-speaking "Pure Uzbeks" (Taza Özbek).
The modern Uzbek language is largely derived from the Chagatai language which gained prominence in the Timurid Empire. The position of Chagatai (and later Uzbek) was further strengthened after the fall of the Timurids and the rise of the Shaybanid Uzbek Khaqanate that finally shaped the Turkic language and identity of modern Uzbeks, while the unique grammatical[29] and phonetical features of the Uzbek language as well as the modern Uzbek culture reflect the more ancient Iranian roots of the Uzbek people.[26][30][31][32]
Genetic origins
Uzbeks share a large portion of their ancestry with nearby Turkic populations, including
The western ancestry of Uzbeks includes a Caucasus component (~35–40%), and a (Northern) European component (~5–20%), the Uzbeks eastern ancestry includes an Eastern Asian component (~35%), and a (Central and East) Siberian component (~5–20%). The best proxy for their western ancestry are modern day
A study on modern Central Asians comparing them to ancient historical samples found that Uzbeks can be modeled as 48.8–65.1% Iron Age Indo-Iranians, and 34.9–51.2% Eastern Steppe Xiongnu, from the Mongolian Plateau.[35]
Paternal haplogroups
Based on the research of several studies, the paternal lineages of Uzbeks have been described:[36]
- Haplogroup R1a1, a West Eurasian haplogroup, occurs at a rate of 17-32% among Uzbek men, making it the predominant Y-DNA lineage among Uzbeks.[37] It is unclear if this haplogroup in Uzbeks came from local Bronze Age Indo-European pastoralists, or if it originates from Turkic migrants, because despite being considered a diagnostic Indo-Iranian haplogroup, it occurs at a high frequency among Turkic males from Siberia.[38][39]
- Haplogroup J, a West Eurasian haplogroup, occurs at a rate of 5.9–21.4% in Uzbek males. This haplogroup has been present in the Middle East for tens of thousands of years.[40]
- Haplogroup C2, an East Eurasian haplogroup, occurs at a rate of 4–18% among Uzbek men. In one sample from Afghanistan, 41.2% of Uzbek men carried this haplogroup. Lee & Kuang posit that the males in this sample are descended from the nomadic Uzbeks of the Qipchaq steppe. It is likely that haplogroup C2 was brought to the middle east by Turkic or Mongolic peoples, along with minor Uzbek haplogroups O3 and N.[40][41]
Maternal haplogroups
According to a 2010 study, slightly more than 50% of Uzbeks from Tashkent belong to East Eurasian and South Asian maternal haplogroups, while nearly 50% belong to West Eurasian haplogroups.[42]
A majority of Uzbeks from
In Khorzem and Qashkadarya, a majority of Uzbeks belong to West Eurasian maternal haplogroups, while considerably fewer belong to East Eurasian and South Asian haplogroups.[42]
History
Ancient history
In the southern part of Central Asia, there was a Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, which has recently been dated to c. 2250–1700 BC.[43][44] That name is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age civilization of Central Asia, previously dated to c. 2400–1900 BC by Sandro Salvatori.[43]
Alexander the Great conquered Sogdiana and Bactria in 329 BC, marrying
In the first centuries, the northern territories of modern Uzbekistan were part of the Kangju nomad state.[45]
With the arrival of the Greeks, writing based on the Greek alphabet began to spread on the territory of Bactria and Sogdiana. As a result of archaeological research on the territory of Sogdiana and Bactria, fragments of pottery with Greek inscriptions have been found.
In 2nd century BC China began to develop its silk trade with the West. Because of this trade on what became known as the
In 350–375 AD, Sogdiana and Tashkent oasis were captured by the nomadic
Turkic Khaganate period
The First Turkic Khaganate and migration of the population played a large role in the formation of a sedentary Turkic population in the territory of the oases of Central Asia in the 6th–8th centuries.
In the Western Turkic Khaganate, in addition to various Turkic tribes, there were Iranian nomadic elements, which were gradually assimilated by the Turks. The urban population of Sogd, Khwarazm, Bactria was in close contact with the Turks.[23]
Turkic names and titles are found in Bactrian documents of the 7th–8th centuries: kagan, tapaglig eltabir, tarkhan, tudun, the names Kutlug Tapaglig Bilga savuk, Kara-tongi, Tongaspar, Turkic ethnic names: halach, Turk.[50] During the excavations of the Sogdian Penjikent, a fragment of a draft letter in the Sogdian language was discovered, in the text of which there is a Turkic name Turkash [51]
The Turkic population of the Fergana Valley had their own runic writing. The Turkic rulers of Ferghana, Tokharistan, Bukhara and Chach issued their own coins.[52][53]
The Turkic population of certain regions of Central Asia in the early Middle Ages had their own urban culture and used the proper Turkic terms, for example, baliq, which meant city.[54]
The Turks had a great influence in the development of the armament of the Sogdians.[55] The Turks are depicted in the wall paintings of ancient Samarkand.
-
Early coin ofNezak Huns, whom he displaced. Tokharistan, late 7th century CE.
-
Trilingual coin of Tegin Shah towards the end of his reign. Tokharistan, 728 CE.
Early Islamic period
The
Despite brief Arab rule, Central Asia successfully retained much of its Iranian characteristic, remaining an important center of culture and trade for centuries after the adoption of the new religion. Mawarannahr continued to be an important political player in regional affairs, as it had been under various Persian dynasties. In fact, the Abbasid Caliphate, which ruled the Arab world for five centuries beginning in 750, was established thanks in great part to assistance from Central Asian supporters in their struggle against the then-ruling Umayyad Caliphate.[56]
During the height of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 8th and 9th centuries, Central Asia and Mawarannahr experienced a truly golden age. Bukhara became one of the leading centers of learning, culture, and art in the Muslim world, its magnificence rivaling contemporaneous cultural centers such as Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba. Some of the greatest historians, scientists, and geographers in the history of Islamic culture were natives of the region.[56]
As the Abbasid Caliphate began to weaken and local Islamic Iranian states emerged as the rulers of Iran and Central Asia, the
The Samanids were a Persian state that reigned for 180 years, encompassing a vast territoriy stretching from Central Asia to West Asia.
The Samanid Empire was the first native Persian dynasty to arise after the Muslim Arab conquest. The four grandsons of the dynasty's founder,
Samanid rule in
Since the 9th century, the Turkization of the population of the Central Asian interfluve has been increasing. At this time, a military system was created, in which the influence of the Turkic military was strong.[63]
In the 9th century, the continued influx of nomads from the northern steppes brought a new group of people into Central Asia. These people were the Turks who lived in the great grasslands stretching from Mongolia to the Caspian Sea. Introduced mainly as slave soldiers to the Samanid dynasty, these Turks served in the armies of all the states of the region, including the Abbasid army. In the late 10th century, as the Samanids began to lose control of Transoxiana (Mawarannahr) and northeastern Iran, some of these soldiers came to positions of power in the government of the region, and eventually established their own states, albeit highly Persianized. With the emergence of a Turkic ruling group in the region, other Turkic tribes began to migrate to Transoxiana.[64]
The first of the Turkic states in the region was the Persianate
According to Peter Golden, the Karakhanid state was one of the first Turkic-Islamic states.[66] The Islamization of the Karakhanids and their Turkic subjects played an important role in the cultural development of the Turkic culture. In the late 10th–early 11th century for the first time in the history of the Turkic peoples, Tafsir (commentary on the Koran) was translated into the Turkic language.[67]
The founder of the Western Karakhanid Kaganate, Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040–1068), for the first time erected a madrasah in Samarkand with state funds and supported the development of culture in the region. One of the famous scholars was the historian Majid ad-din al-Surkhakati, who in Samarkand wrote the "History of Turkestan", which outlined the history of the Karakhanid dynasty.[68]
The most striking monument of the Karakhanid era in Samarkand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202), which was built in the citadel in the 12th century, where fragments of monumental painting depicting a Turkic ruler were discovered.[69]
The dominance of Ghazna was curtailed, however, when the
Turkic words and terms characteristic of the literature of the 11th century are used in the modern Bukhara dialect of the Uzbeks.[71]
In the late 12th century, a Turkic leader of Khorazm, which is the region south of the Aral Sea, united Khorazm, Transoxiana, and Iran under his rule. Under the rule of the Khorazm
Mongol period
The Mongol invasion of Central Asia is one of the turning points in the history of the region. The Mongols had such a lasting impact because they established the tradition that the legitimate ruler of any Central Asian state could only be a blood descendant of Genghis Khan.[72]
The
Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, his empire was divided among his four sons and his family members. Despite the potential for serious fragmentation, Mongol law of the Mongol Empire maintained orderly succession for several more generations, and control of most of Mawarannahr stayed in the hands of direct descendants of Chaghatai, the second son of Genghis. Orderly succession, prosperity, and internal peace prevailed in the Chaghatai lands, and the Mongol Empire as a whole remained strong and united.[73][full citation needed]
Rule of Timur and Timurids
In the early 14th century, however, as the empire began to break up into its constituent parts, the Chaghatai territory also was disrupted as the princes of various tribal groups competed for influence. One tribal chieftain, Timur (Tamerlane), emerged from these struggles in the 1380s as the dominant force in Mawarannahr. Although he was not a descendant of Genghis, Timur became the de facto ruler of Mawarannahr and proceeded to conquer all of western Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, Asia Minor, and the southern steppe region north of the Aral Sea. He also invaded Russia before dying during an invasion of China in 1405.[73]
Timur initiated the last flowering of Mawarannahr by gathering in his capital, Samarkand, numerous artisans and scholars from the lands he had conquered. By supporting such people, Timur imbued his empire with a very rich Perso-Islamic culture. During Timur's reign and the reigns of his immediate descendants, a wide range of religious and palatial construction projects were undertaken in Samarkand and other population centers. Timur also patronized scientists and artists; his grandson
The Timurids supported the development of literature in the Turkic language. In 1398, Timur's son Miranshah ordered to draw up an official document in the Turkic language in the Uyghur script.[74]
Timur's grandson Iskandar Sultan had a court that included a group of poets, for example, Mir Khaidar, whom Iskandar encouraged to write poetry in the Turkic language. Thanks to the patronage of Iskandar Sultan, the Turkic poem "Gul and Navruz" was written.[75]
The Timurid state quickly broke into two halves after the death of Timur. The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Eastern Kipchak-speaking nomadic tribes called Taza Uzbeks who were living to the north of the Aral Sea. In 1501, the Uzbeks began a wholesale invasion of Mawarannahr.[73] Under the leadership of Muhammad Shaybani, the Uzbeks conquered the key cities of Samarkand and Herat in 1505 and 1507, respectively, and founded the Khanate of Bukhara.
Uzbek period
By 1510, the Uzbeks had completed their conquest of Central Asia[
Shaybani Khan wrote poetry under the pseudonym "Shibani". A collection of poems by Shaybani Khan, written in the Central Asian Turkic literary language, is currently kept in the Topkapi manuscript collection in Istanbul. The manuscript of his philosophical and religious work: "Bahr ul-Khudo", written in the Central Asian Turkic literary language in 1508, is located in London.[78]
Shaybani-khan's nephew Ubaydulla Khan was a very educated person, he skillfully recited the Koran and provided it with commentaries in the Turkic language. Ubaydulla himself wrote poetry in Turkic, Persian and Arabic under the literary pseudonym Ubaydiy. A collection of his poems has reached us.[79]
The term "92 Uzbek tribes", which appeared in the fifteenth-century Dasht-i Qipchaq, began to be used with a variety of meanings in the following centuries depending on the political and cultural context.[80] Near the end of the 16th century, the Uzbek states[81] of Bukhara and Khorazm began to weaken because of their endless wars against each other and the Persians and because of strong competition for the throne among the khans in power and their heirs. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Shaybanid dynasty was replaced by the Janid dynasty.[77]
Another factor contributing to the weakness of the Uzbek khanates in this period was the general decline of trade moving through the region. This change had begun in the previous century when ocean trade routes were established from Europe to India and China, circumventing the Silk Route. As European-dominated ocean transport expanded and some trading centers were destroyed, cities such as Bukhara,
The Uzbeks' struggle with Iran also led to the cultural isolation of Central Asia from the rest of the Islamic world. In addition to these problems, the struggle with the nomads from the northern steppe continued. In the 17th and 18th centuries,
Afghan Pashtun conquest
An Uzbek Khanate existed in
Russo-Soviet era
Russian Empire
In the 19th century, Russian interest in the area increased greatly, sparked by nominal concern over British designs on Central Asia; by anger over the situation of Russian citizens held as slaves; and by the desire to control the trade in the region and to establish a secure source of
As soon as the Russian conquest of the
By 1876, Russia had incorporated all three khanates (hence all of present-day Uzbekistan) into its empire, granting the khanates limited autonomy. In the second half of the 19th century, the Russian population of Uzbekistan grew and some industrialization occurred.[87] The Jadidists engaged in educational reform among Muslims of Central Asia. To escape Russians slaughtering them in 1916, Uzbeks escaped to China.[88]
Soviet Union
In the 1940s,
Moscow's control over Uzbekistan weakened in the 1970s as Uzbek party leader
Post-Soviet era
When the Supreme Soviet of Uzbekistan reluctantly approved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, Karimov became president of the Republic of Uzbekistan.[87] On August 31, 1991, Uzbekistan declared independence, marking September 1 as a national holiday.[91]
Uzbek diaspora
Dissident Islamist and anti-Soviet Central Asians fled to Afghanistan, British India, and to the Hijaz in Saudi Arabia.
In the recent times, many Uzbeks started to migrate to various countries as
Kyrgyzstan
Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan are an ethnic group native to Kyrgyzstan. In Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeks are the largest minority group, comprising about 15% of the population. They have a long history in the region and have played a significant role in the culture and economy of Kyrgyzstan. Many Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan live in the southern part of the country, particularly in the cities of Osh, Jalal-Abad and Özgön.
Saudi Arabia
Uzbek exiles in Saudi Arabia from Soviet ruled Central Asia also adopted the identity "Turkistani".[101][102] A lot of them are also called "Bukhari".[103] A number of Saudi "Uzbeks" do not consider themselves as Uzbek and instead consider themselves as Muslim Turkestanis.[104] Many Uzbeks in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabic nisba of their home city in Uzbekistan, such as Al Bukhari from Bukhara, Al Samarqandi from Samarkand, Al Tashkandi from Tashkent, Al Andijani from Andijan, Al Kokandi from Kokand, Al Turkistani from Turkistan. Bukhari and Turkistani were labels for all the Uzbeks in general while specific names for Uzbeks from different places were Farghani, Marghilani, Namangani, and Kokandi.[102][105] Kokandi was used to refer to Uzbeks from Ferghana.[106]
Shami Domullah introduced Salafism to Soviet Central Asia.[107][108] Mosques in Uzbekistan are funded by Saudi-based Uzbeks.[109] Saudis have tried to propagate their version of Islam into Uzbekistan following the collapse of the Soviet Union.[110][111][112][113] Saudi Arabia's "Bukharian brethren" were led by Nuriddin al-Bukhari as of 1990.[114]
Pakistan
Many ethnic Uzbeks moved from Afghanistan to Pakistan owing to the Afghan War.[115] Due to aid requirements for refugees, repatriation of camp dwellers took place.[116] In the 1800s, Konya's north Bogrudelik was settled by Tatar Bukharlyks. In 1981, many Uzbek refugees in Pakistan moved to Turkey to join the existing Kayseri, İzmir, Ankara, and Zeytinburnu-based communities.[117]
Culture and society
Uzbek tribes
Uzbeks are said to have included 92 tribes in their orbit:
Language
The
Religion
Uzbeks come from a predominantly
A 2015 study estimates some 10,000 Muslim Uzbek converted to
The ancient pre-Islamic religion of Uzbekistan-
Attire
Male clothing
Uzbek clothing includes a loose-fitting cotton coat, called Chapan or Kaftan, which is usually made from a variety of colorful stripes, or other types of patterns. The chapan is usually of knee length, and includes different elements in various regions of the country. The botton of the sleeves, center edges, hem and neckline of the coat ate sown with a decorative braid, which was believed to protect from "evil powers". In the past, wearing two or more coats at the same time, both in winter and summer, was seen as a status symbol, and indicated a certain level of prestige for the family.
The coat, or the shirt worn underneath, is tied with a folded handlerchief or a band belbog. The band is viewed as an important accessory, and can be made of fine fabrics and silks, decorated with intricate silver embroidery, and fitted with little bags for tobacco and keys. Traditionally, a hand crafted knife is placed in the band, known as pichoq,[131][132] Chust made knives are famous in particular.[133][134][135][136][137]
Shirts are white and wide, made of cotton, and usually worn underneath the coat. Some of them have patterns on the sleeves and the neckline, called jiyak. Pants, also known as ishton, are loosely cut, but narrow to the bottom, and are tucked into soft leather boots with pointed toes, for the ease of horse riding.
Female clothing
The female version of the attire consists of a traditional robe, functional dress made of satin, and lozim – wide, light, light trousers narrowing in the lower parts. The long, loose tunic has wide sleeves, reaching down to the wrists. The loose-cut pants, are made to match the tunic, and thus are usually made of the same fabric, or one completely to the tunic. The bottom of the pants is gathered and decorated with embroidered braid. The coats, are in many ways similar to the chapan worn by males, and are made of various fabrics, such as atlas, khan-atlas, bekasama, alacha and kalami. Textile patterns are brightly colored in the shades of yellow, blue, green, violet, and orange, and often include up to six or seven different colors in various floral and/or geometrical designs.
In the past, color of the costume was an important signal of a person's age or social status. Notably, red and pink were common for girls and young women, whereas middle-aged women wore shades of light blue and gray. White however, was appropriate for all ages, especially the elderly, and is used widely to this day.
Before the Bolshevik Revolution and the subsequent establishment of communism in Central Asia, women wore traditional veils, known as parandga, on all occasions in public. The designs were varied, some adhering to one or two basic colors in their designs, while others included colored floral or geometrical elements, with the face-lid, usually being made of black fabric. The face-lid could be lifted back, for ease of communication.
However, after the establishment of communism, a movement to liberate women from the "patrarchal" and "outdated" practice of wearing veils, known as Hujum, gained track, and in the 20s and early 30s, public abandonments and burnings of veiles were encouraged. The result was a conservative pushback, however in the following years, with the increased participation of women in the workplace, and their gradual liberation, veils were phased out of the common use by women throughout the country.
Headgear
The square skullcap, known as do'ppi in Uzbek and
See also
- Sart
- Uzbek language
- Uzbeks In Russia
- Uygurs
- Karakhanid Khanate
- Turkic peoples
- Mongol invasion of Central Asia
- Uzbeks in Pakistan
- Ethnic groups in Afghanistan
- Culture of Uzbekistan
References
- ^ "Permanent population by national and / Or ethnic group, urban / Rural place of residence".
- ^ "Afghan Population: 34,940,837 (July 2018 est.) [Uzbeks = 11%]". Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Factbook. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
- ^ "Afghanistan people groups, languages and religions | Joshua Project".
- ^ "Tajikistan Population 2021 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs)". worldpopulationreview.com. Archived from the original on 2021-08-11. Retrieved 2021-08-09.
- ^ "Uzbek, Northern people group in all countries | Joshua Project".
- ^ ""Statistical Yearbook of the Kyrgyz Republic – Publications Archive – Statistics of the Kyrgyz Republic"".
- ^ "2023 жыл басына Қазақстан Республикасы халқының саны" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-06-11.
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20161006054812/http://www.chrono-tm.org/en/2015/02/the-results-of-census-in-turkmenistan/
- ^ https://www.stat.gov.tm/
- ^ ""Национальный состав населения"". rosstat.gov.ru.
- ^ "Uzbek in Pakistan".
- ^ "PLACE OF BIRTH FOR THE FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES, Universe: Foreign-born population excluding population born at sea, 2014 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
- ^ "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. August 9, 2012
- ^ "Uzbek Minority – Chinese Nationalities (Ozbek)". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ A. H. Keane, A. Hingston Quiggin, A. C. Haddon, Man: Past and Present, p.312, Cambridge University Press, 2011, Google Books, quoted: "Who take their name from a mythical Uz-beg, Prince Uz (beg in Turki=a chief, or hereditary ruler)."
- ^ MacLeod, Calum; Bradley Mayhew. Uzbekistan: Golden Road to Samarkand. p. 31.[unreliable source?]
- ^ Usama ibn Munkyz. Kniga nazidaniya. per. Yu. I. Krachkovskogo. Moscow, 1958, p.134
- ^ Rashid ad-din. Sbornik letopisey. T.1., kn.1. Moscow, 1952
- ISBN 9781498538374.
- ISBN 9789004306493.
- ^ Belenitskii & Marshak 1981, p. 16.
- ^ Etienne de la Vaissiere, Is there a „Nationality of the Hephtalites?“ in Bulletin of the Asia institute. New series. Volume 17. 2003. [2007], p. 129—130
- ^ a b Golden, Peter B. "An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples." Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East (1992): 134.
- ^ "Irano-Turkish Relations in the Late Sasanian Period". The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. III/1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1983. pp. 613–24. 0-521-24693-8.
- ^ a b Golden, Peter B. An Introduction to the History of Turkic Peoples (1992) p. 407-408
- ^ )
- ^ A. H. Nauta, "Der Lautwandel von a > o and von a > ä in der özbekischen Schriftsprache," Central Asiatic Journal 16, 1972, pp. 104–18.
- ^ A. Raun, Basic course in Uzbek, Bloomington, 1969.
- ^ A. von Gabain, "Özbekische Grammatik", Leipzig and Vienna, 1945
- ^ J. Bečka, "Tajik Literature from the 16th Century to the Present," in Jan Rypka, Hist. Iran. Lit., pp. 520–605
- ^ A. Jung, Quellen der klassischen Musiktradition Mittelasiens: Die usbekisch-tadshikischen maqom-Zyklen und ihre Beziehung zu anderen regionalen maqam-Traditionen im Vorderen and Mittleren Orient, Ph.D. dissertation, Berlin, 1983.
- ^ T. Levin, The Music and Tradition of the Bukharan Shashmaqam in Soviet Uzbekistan, Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton, 1984
- PMID 25898006. ". In contrast, populations closer to the SSM area (Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uygurs, and also Bashkirs from the Volga-Ural region) still demonstrated a statistically significant excess of IBD sharing. This spatial pattern can be partly explained by a relative rarity of longer IBD tracts compared to shorter ones and recurrent gene flow events into populations closer to the SSM area."
- PMID 29297395.
- PMID 36006373.
- ISSN 2210-5018.
- ^ Lee 2017, p. 219: "See Wells et al. (2001: 10245, table 1: M17, M130, M46, M172, M175 and 122, and M48 corre- spond to haplogroups R1a1, C2, N1c1, J, O, and C2b1b1, respectively); Zerjal et al. (2002: 474, table 3: haplogroups 3, 9, 10, 13, 16, and 36 correspond to haplogroups R1a1, J, C2, O3, N1c1, and C2b1b1, respectively); Haber et al. (2012: table S4). According to another recent survey, the Uzbeks of Afghanistan exhibit R1a1 (29%), J (18%), Q (8.6%), C (4%), N (4%), R1b1a1a1 (3%), R2 (3%) and O (2.3%): see Di Cristofaro et al. (2013: figure S7).
- ^ Lee 2017, p. 216.
- ^ Lee 2017, pp. 218–219: "As to haplogroup R1a1 among the modern-day Uzbeks and Xinjiang Uighurs, the extent to which it originated from the Bronze Age Indo-European pastoralists and from the Turkic and Turkicized Inner Asian nomadic groups, respectively, remains open to speculation." ... "The modern Uzbeks, who also descend from the ancient Indo-European (Iranic) populations and various Inner Asian nomadic peoples (Golden 1992: 407), including the Shibanid Uzbeks, exhibit a set of haplogroups similar to those of the Xinjiang Uighurs: R1a1 (17.6~32%), J (5.9~21.4%), C2 (7~18%, 41.2%), O3 (0~12%) and N (0~5.9%)."
- ^ a b Lee 2017, pp. 218–219: "Haplogroup J is a patrilineal lineage originating in the Middle East and probably reached Central Asia with Neolithic farmers from the Middle East. Haplogroups O3, C2, and N were in all likelihood brought to Transoxiana by various Turkic and Mongolic peoples."
- ^ Lee 2017, p. 219: "This high frequency of C2 is found among an Uzbek group residing in Afghanistan. We are inclined to think that this group is descended from the nomadic Uzbeks from the Qipchaq Steppe (Haber et al. 2012: table S4)."
- ^ S2CID 2759130. Regional results can be seen in figure 3.
- ^ a b Lyonnet, Bertille, and Nadezhda A. Dubova, (2020b). "Questioning the Oxus Civilization or Bactria- Margiana Archaeological Culture (BMAC): an overview" Archived 2022-07-02 at the Wayback Machine, in Bertille Lyonnet and Nadezhda A. Dubova (eds.), The World of the Oxus Civilization, Routledge, London and New York, p. 32.: "...Salvatori has often dated its beginning very early (ca. 2400 BC), to make it match with Shahdad where a large amount of material similar to that of the BMAC has been discovered. With the start of international cooperation and the multiplication of analyses, the dates now admitted by all place the Oxus Civilization between 2250 and 1700 BC, while its final phase extends until ca. 1500 BC..."
- ^ Lyonnet, Bertille, and Nadezhda A. Dubova, (2020a). "Introduction" Archived 2022-07-26 at the Wayback Machine, in Bertille Lyonnet and Nadezhda A. Dubova (eds.), The World of the Oxus Civilization, Routledge, London and New York, p. 1 : "The Oxus Civilization, also named the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (or Culture) (BMAC), developed in southern Central Asia during the Middle and Late Bronze Age and lasted for about half a millennium (ca. 2250–1700 BC)..."
- ^ Zadneprovskiy, Y. A. (1 January 1994). "The Nomads of Northern Central Asia After The Invasion of Alexander". In Harmatta, János(ed.). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250.UNESCO. pp. 457–472.
- ^ Lubin, Nancy. "Early history". In Curtis.
- ^ Grenet Frantz, Regional interaction in Central Asia and northwest India in the Kidarite and Hephtalites periods in Indo-Iranian languages and peoples. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Oxford university press, 2003. Р.218–222
- ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2. Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
- ^ Grenet, Frantz (2004). "Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole". Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales. 5/6: Fig. B. Archived from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2021-01-17.
- ^ Sims-Williams Nicholas, Bactrian documents from Northern Afghanistan. I. Legal and economic documents. London: Oxford university press, 2000
- ^ Marshak Boris. Legends, tales and fables in the art of Sogdiana with an appendix by V.A. Livshits. New York: Bibliotheca persica press, 2002. Р.168
- ^ Baratova L.S. Drevnetyurkskiye monety Sredney Azii VI-IX vv. (tipologiya, ikonografiya, istoricheskaya interpretatsiya). Avtoref. diss. kand. ist. nauk. Tashkent, 1995
- ^ Smirnova O. I., Svodnyy katalog sogdiyskikh monet. Moscow, 1981, p.59.
- ^ Bartol'd V.V. Raboty po istoricheskoy geografii. Moscow: Vostochnaya literatura, 2002. pp.360–363.
- ^ Raspopova V.I. Metallicheskiye izdeliya rannesrednevekovogo Sogda. Leningrad: 1980
- ^ a b c d Lubin, Nancy. "Early Islamic period". In Curtis.
- ^ Tabaḳāt-i-nāsiri: a general history of the Muhammadan dynastics of Asia, pg.31, By Minhāj Sirāj Jūzjānī
- ^ The historical, social and economic setting By M. S. Asimov, pg.79
- ^ a b Iran and America: Re-Kind[l]ing a Love Lost By Badi Badiozamani, Ghazal Badiozamani, pg. 123
- ^ History of Bukhara by Narshakhi, Chapter XXIV, Pg 79
- ^ The Monumental Inscriptions from Early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana By Sheila S. Blair, pg. 27
- ^ The book of government, or, Rules for kings: the Siyar al-Muluk, or, Siyasat-nama of Nizam al-Mulk, Niẓām al-Mulk, Hubert Darke, pg.18–19
- ^ Bregel Yuri, Turko-Mongol influences in Central Asia in Turco-Persia in Historical Perspective Edited by R. Canfield (Cambridge University Press), 1991, p.56
- ^ a b c d Lubin, Nancy. "Turkification of Mawarannahr". In Curtis.
- ISBN 978-9231034671
- ^ Golden, Peter B. "An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples." Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East (1992): 228.
- ^ Borovkov, A.K. Leksika sredneaziatskogo tefsira: XII—XIII vv. Moscow, 1963
- ^ Introduction to The Jawami u’l-hikayat wa Lawami’ur-riwayat of Sadidu’u-din Muhammad al-Awfi by Muhammad Nizamu’d-din. London: Luzac & Co, 1929
- ^ Karev, Yuri. "Un cycle de peintures murales d'époque qarakhanide (XIIe-XIIIe siècles) à la citadelle de Samarkand: le souverain et le peintre." Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 147, no. 4 (2003): 1685–1731.
- ISBN 0-521-24304-1
- ^ Kilichev E. R., Vostochno-tyurkskiy yazyk XI veka i leksika bukharskogo govora // Sovetskaya tyurkologiya, 1975, No. 6, p.87
- ^ a b Lubin, Nancy. "Mongol period". In Curtis.
- ^ a b c d Lubin, Nancy. "Rule of Timur". In Curtis.
- ^ Matsui, Dai, Ryoko WATABE, and Hiroshi Ono. «A Turkic-Persian Decree of Timurid Mīrān Šāh of 800 AH/1398 CE.» Orient 50 (2015): 53–75.
- ^ "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". Archived from the original on 2021-04-15. Retrieved 2021-02-15.
- ISBN 978-93-5118-093-7. Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
- ^ a b c d Lubin, Nancy. "Uzbek period". In Curtis.
- ^ A.J.E.Bodrogligeti, «Muhammad Shaybanî’s Bahru’l-huda : An Early Sixteenth Century Didactic Qasida in Chagatay», Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher, vol.54 (1982), p. 1 and n.4
- ^ B. V. Norik, Rol shibanidskikh praviteley v literaturnoy zhizni Maverannakhra XVI v. // Rakhmat-name. Sankt Petersburg, 2008, p.230
- ^ Malikov A. “92 Uzbek Tribes” in Official Discourses and the Oral Traditions from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review. 2020, vol. 8, no. 3, p.515
- ^ Bregel, Yuri. "The New Uzbek States: Bukhara, Khiva and Khoqand: c. 1750–1886." The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age (2009): 392–411.
- ISBN 978-0-226-10064-7. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ISBN 978-0-8122-0615-9. Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
- ^ Bleuer, Christian (17 October 2014). "From 'Slavers' to 'Warlords': Descriptions of Afghanistan's Uzbeks in western writing". Afghanistan Analysts Network. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
- ^ Saboory, Ghafoor (17 July 2015). "Jogies Leading Impoverished Life in Balkh". Afghanistan News-TOLOnews.com. Archived from the original on 2016-09-20.
- ^ a b Lubin, Nancy. "Russian conquest". In Curtis.
- ^ a b "Country Profile: Uzbekistan" Archived 2005-02-26 at the Wayback Machine. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (February 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Sydykova, Zamira (20 January 2016). "Commemorating the 1916 Massacres in Kyrgyzstan? Russia Sees a Western Plot". The Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
- ^ "Soviet Field of Glory" Archived 2017-05-08 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
- ^ Rustam Qobil (2017-05-09). "Why were 101 Uzbeks killed in the Netherlands in 1942?". BBC. Archived from the original on 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2017-05-09.
- ^ "Independence Day". GOV.UZ. Archived from the original on 2022-08-19. Retrieved 2023-03-23.
- ^ "CP 77" (PDF). carnegieendowment.org.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Olcoot roots" (PDF). carnegieendowment.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2006-11-22. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
- ^ "Repoirt on Central Asian extremisim" (PDF). www.worldwatchmonitor.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-30. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
- ^ "قاسم بن عبد الجبار الأنديجاني". IslamHouse.com. Archived from the original on 21 June 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "(منبع العرفان) تفسير كبير باللغة الأوزبكية (القديمة) بالحرف العربي". Archived from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "Uzbekistan Looks to Diversify Labour Migration".
- ^ "Germany and Uzbekistan sign migration deal". 3 May 2023.
- ^ "Uzbekistan, Poland to expand relations in field of labor migration".
- ^ "CPC | Central Asian Labor Migration: Exploring New Destinations Amid Geopolitical Tensions".
- ISBN 978-91-86884-16-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ISBN 978-0-313-34442-8. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ISBN 978-91-86884-16-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ Cutler, Robert M. "The Complexity of Central Eurasia". Archived from the original on 2022-05-18. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 978-1-349-40743-9.
- ^ "Special: Dangerous Preaching: The Role of Religious Leaders in the Rise of Radical Islam in Central Asia. By Nurbek Bekmurzaev". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ISBN 978-1-134-20731-2. Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
- ^ "The Myth of Militant Islam: Uzbekistan – Transitions Online". 29 December 1995. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ CENTRAL ASIA and THE CAUCASUS. "CA&CC Press® AB". Archived from the original on 25 June 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "Islamic Revivalism and Political Attitudes in Uzbekistan" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-27. Retrieved 2018-09-21.
- ^ Prajakti Kalra. "Hidden Linkages: The Republic of Uzbekistan and the Gulf Region in Changing World Order". Archived from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 978-1-135-97169-4. Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
- ^ Central Asian Studies Association (1990). Central Asia File: Newsletter of the Central Asian Studies Association. School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. p. 20. Archived from the original on 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
- ISBN 978-0-8191-9286-8. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
- ISBN 978-0-8191-9286-8. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ Espace populations sociétés. Université des sciences et techniques de Lille, U.E.R. de géographie. 2006. p. 174. Archived from the original on 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ Султанов Т. Кочевые племена Приаралья в XV—XVII вв.// Вопросы этнической и социальной истории. М., 1982
- ^ Allworth Edward, The modern Uzbeks from the fourteenth century to the present: a cultural history, Hoover Press, 1990, p.74
- ^ Firdaws al-iqbal. History of Khorezm by Shir Muhammad Mirab Munis and Muhammad Riza Mirab Aghahi. Translated from Chaghatay and annotated by Yuri Bregel. Brill, 1999,р.55
- ^ Malikov A. “92 Uzbek Tribes” in Official Discourses and the Oral Traditions from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review. 2020, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 515
- ^ Shoniyozov K., Oʻzbek xalqining shakllanish jarayoni, Toshkent, 2001.
- ^ "Ozbek". Encyclopaedia of Islam (CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0 ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. 1999.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-19. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ a b "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. August 9, 2012. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
- ISBN 1-59084-887-X.
- ^ Johnstone, Patrick; Miller, Duane Alexander (2015). "Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census". IJRR. 11 (10): 1–19. Archived from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 30 October 2015.
- ^ a b Итоги национальной переписи населения 2009 года. Национальный состав, вероисповедание и владения языками в Республике Казахстан[permanent dead link]
- ISBN 9781351022408.
- ^ "Uzbakestan Zoroastrians at Gatha Class". Archived from the original on 2020-10-30. Retrieved 2020-06-06.
- ^ "Unique Uzbek Knives". 12 December 2013. Archived from the original on 15 April 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "Fergana Knives Breed". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ Pannier, Bruce (7 November 2015). "An Uzbek Knife And Hat, Made In China". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ Anur Tour Uzbekistan. "Chust knives". Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "Heritage of Fergana armourers". Archived from the original on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "Pchak "Uzbek"". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "Stock Photos, Royalty-Free Images and Vectors – Shutterstock". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
Sources
- Allworth, Edward. The Modern Uzbeks: From the 14th Century to the Present, Hoover Institution Press (July 1990).
- Belenitskii, Aleksandr M.; Marshak, B.I. (1981). Azarpay, Guitty (ed.). Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art. University of California Press.
- Calum MacLeod, Bradley Mayhew "Uzbekistan. Golden Road to Samarkand" page31.
- Critchlow, James. Nationalism in Uzbekistan: Soviet Republic's Road to Sovereignty, Westview Press (October 1991).
- Noble, Ivan. BBC News, DNA analysis tracks Silk Road forbears [sic]
- Rashid, Ahmad. The Resurgence of Central Asia : Islam or Nationalism? Zed Books (April 15, 1995)
- Zerjal, Tatiana, et al. A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 71:466–482, 2002.
- Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Part 9, pages 483–489
- Malikov A. “92 Uzbek Tribes” in Official Discourses and the Oral Traditions from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review. 2020, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 515–532.
Further reading
- Battersby, Harold R. (1985). "The Uzbeks and Their Ideas of Ultimate Reality and Meaning". Harold R. Battersby. 8 (3). Ultimate Reality and Meaning 8.3 (1985): 172–195.: 172–195. .