Architecture of Washington, D.C.

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Three iconic, classically inspired American landmarks on the National Mall illuminated at night: the Lincoln Memorial (forefront), the Washington Monument, and the United States Capitol (background)

Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States,[1] has a unique and diverse architectural history. Encompassing government, monumental, commercial, and residential buildings, D.C. is home to some of the country's most famous and popular structures designed by some of the leading architects of their time. The popularity of the city's buildings is reflected in the findings of a 2007 poll of Americans by the American Institute of Architects, which found that six of the top 10 most popular U.S. structures were located in Washington, D.C. Overall, the poll found, 17 of the top 150 most popular structures were located in the capital.[2]

Due to the city's political and historic importance, the architectural motifs found throughout the city encompass a diverse range of styles. The city is most famous for its Neoclassical government buildings, monuments, and memorials. Located mostly Downtown and along the National Mall and Tidal Basin, these buildings, inspired from ancient Rome and Greece, were designed to capture the power, strength, and grandeur of the U.S. government while honoring the political and philosophical thinkers and leaders upon which many the nation was developed. These structures have large pediments, classical columns, domes, and classical statues and reliefs often made of stone or marble.

Although the city's

Brutalism, and Postmodernism
.

In addition to historic Neoclassical government buildings, monuments, and memorials, Washington, D.C. is also famous for its museums and non-Neoclassically inspired memorials. The city's museums and modern memorials are some of the most visited sites in the United States and have inspired the creation of other architecturally important structures throughout the world.

History

See also: History of Washington, D.C.

18th century

U.S. Capitol by William Thornton

Northwest D.C. L'Enfant's plan called for the President's House and Capitol to be near the center of the city.[5][6]

The City of Washington was largely underdeveloped for decades following its founding, with the exception of government buildings, small neighborhoods, and taverns. Early in the city's founding, a competition was announced to determine the designs for the President's House and the U.S. Capitol.

Corinthian columns
, flanked by two wings.

The design for the new President's Mansion was also determined following a design competition. Irish-American James Hoban created the winning Neoclassical design. Hoban's White House design was inspired by several European buildings, particularly buildings in France and his native Ireland.[9][10] The southern portico, for example, was inspired by the Château de Rastignac in France. Both the White House and Capitol were completed in November 1800.

19th century

Upon its completion in 1884, the Washington Monument was the tallest man-made structure in the world at a height of 555 feet.
The Eisenhower Executive Office Building, built in the French Second Empire Style, was ridiculed for decades for its unique design.
The Great Hall of the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress depicts the ornate elements of Beaux-Arts architecture.

Through the early- to mid-1800s, much of the city outside central Washington, D.C. remained heavily underdeveloped, but an increasing number of

Lafayette Square. Along Pennsylvania Avenue, the diagonal road branching northwest from the Capitol to the White House, more construction was occurring, mostly for journalists covering politics in the city. Newspaper Row, as this area was called, remained an active district for newspaper companies until the National Press Building was built in 1927 and consolidated many newspapers into one building.[11][12][13]

The mid-1800s saw two landmark architectural projects take shape. In order to account for the growing representation in Congress, the two wings of the Capitol building were expanded. Following this, it was determined that the dome needed to be enlarged as well. The current dome of the building was designed to have a far more intricate pattern than the original and was completed in 1866. The current dome was built in cast iron, with an exterior dome sitting on an interior one.[14][15]

Shortly after George Washington's death in 1799, proposals were presented to create a monument in his honor in the capital.[16] Robert Mills created the winning design in 1836, though it was simplified significantly due to increasing costs. The obelisk design was begun in 1848 and continued until about one-third of the structure was complete in 1854, at which point funding ran out. The Washington Monument stood in this unfinished state until construction resumed in 1879 and was completed in 1884. At the time of its completion, the Washington Monument was the tallest man-made structure in the world at a height of 555 feet.

The mid- to late-1800s saw many

Romanesque Revival architecture, including the Smithsonian Institution Building and the Arts and Industries Building. The Old Post Office, also designed in this style, was built on Pennsylvania Avenue in 1899 with the hope that it would transform Washington into a city that could rival European capitals, most notably London and Paris
, in its architectural prowess. The Old Post Office was the first building in the city to be made of a steel frame and the first to have electrical wiring.

Popular European architectural movements inspired many American buildings throughout the 1800s. One such building was the

red brick
.

A second notable public building in the city constructed in the French Second Empire Style is the Eisenhower Executive Office Building. Sitting directly west of the White House, the building houses much of the president's staff. The structure was designed by Alfred B. Mullett and built between 1871 and 1888. Like many buildings of the Second Empire Style, the Eisenhower Building has numerous columns, windows, and chimneys in symmetrical relation to one another. The unique and radical design in a city used to Neoclassical and more traditional architecture led to it being widely criticized for decades after its completion. The widespread criticism was fueled by the media, which mocked Mullett relentlessly for his design of this and other Second Empire buildings. This public ridicule, combined with severe financial difficulties, led Mullett to commit suicide in Washington in 1890.

The extravagant

Gothic Revival. Beaux-Arts buildings in the city include the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress, completed in 1897. This is an example of some of the most elaborate art and architecture of the American Renaissance and captures the ornate elements of the Beaux-Arts motif with elaborate interior designs that are among the richest in the United States. The building contains many busts and statues
to American political, social, and intellectual leaders inside the main reading room and great hall as well as on the western façade of the building.

Although Gothic Revival architecture was most popular in the 1800s, the most famous Gothic Revival structure in the city—the

stained glass windows
to American political icons, such as George Washington. Although talk of constructing a national cathedral date back to the city's founding, construction was not begun until 1906, and was not complete until 1988.

20th century

The McMillan Plan of 1902 was implemented piecemeal over the 20th century.

In the early 1900s, a movement to beautify American cities, known as the "

city beautiful movement", led to the construction of new architectural plans for many American cities. The McMillan Plan was written in 1902 by the Senate Park Commission in an attempt to beautify Washington, D.C. The plan included a general design for what is now the National Mall, including the construction of public buildings along the grassy lawns of the mall. The plan called for the elimination of the Victorian-era landscape design of the mall, instead opening it up and allowing pedestrian traffic to easily move east to west. Although the plan was never fully adopted, it was implemented piecemeal in the subsequent decades. The plan succeeded in opening up the mall and extending it westward toward the banks of the Potomac River. It also succeeded in moving public constructions to the Tidal Basin
. Parts of the plan that were never built include a public garden at the base of the Washington Monument as well as a Neoclassical building across Lafayette Square.

In 1910, the

61st US Congress to limit the height of buildings in the city. This act was passed following the construction of the 1894 Cairo apartment building
, which raised concerns that buildings of such height made it difficult to fight a potential building fire. Although the city's height limit has been altered over the years, it remains in place, despite controversy from both architects who claim it limits the possible architectural design of the city's buildings and by those claiming that it increases housing costs.

Great Hall of Union Station.

Daniel H. Burnham, who used numerous architectural styles to create the structure. The ceiling of the Great Hall is made of gold leaf
symmetrical patterns, while neoclassical elements, such as columns and statues, line the interior and exterior of the building.

The Lincoln Memorial, designed by Henry Bacon, was inaugurated in 1922. Many different proposals for this memorial were presented in various locations across the city. In the end, a Neoclassical temple with a large statue of a sitting Abraham Lincoln was chosen to be placed directly west of the Washington Monument. In 1923, a reflecting pool was placed between these two structures. The Jefferson Memorial, another Neoclassical temple, was completed in 1943 to honor Thomas Jefferson, and was placed on the southern side of the Tidal Basin, directly south of the White House.

Washington's rise as a city of global importance through the mid- to late-1900s coincided with the popularity of

Hirshhorn Museum on the National Mall is perhaps the most famous of these. This building is a perfectly symmetrical circular concrete structure with an internal courtyard. Designed by Harry Weese, the interior ceiling of the Washington Metro
is also constructed in the Brutalist style. The first of these underground stations opened in 1976.

Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, designed by Edward Durell Stone
and completed in 1971 along the banks of the Potomac River.

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial, designed by Maya Lin, is a stripped-down, minimalist memorial in-line with Modernist architecture that opened in 1982. This memorial seeks to focus the attention of the Vietnam War not on the complicated and unpopular political decisions taken during the conflict, but rather on the people who died in combat. As such, the memorial is a simple dog-leg wall made of reflective stone upon which are engraved the names of those who died in the war. The Korean War Veterans Memorial, which opened in 1995, similarly includes a reflective wall, though with images of soldiers, as well as statues representing soldiers walking through fields.

21st century

Contemporary architecture has been built throughout the city in the 21st century. The most notable locations where this architecture has taken root include Downtown (including CityCenterDC), Navy Yard, Buzzard Point, and the Wharf. A growth in residential apartments as well as shops and restaurants in these dense areas has allowed for the construction of contemporary buildings with glass and metal façades that have more dynamic designs common of 21st-century architecture found in many major cities.

Architectural styles in Washington, D.C.

Neoclassical

classical Roman architecture by emphasizing the construction of columns in the classical order, domes, pediments, obelisks
, and buildings made of stone. New technology and altering tastes, however, allowed Neoclassical structures to surpass the size and engineering complexity of its classical predecessors. Due to the close affiliation of classical architecture with ancient political ideology as well as with power and strength, this style is popular among important government buildings across the world.

This is Washington's most recognizable architectural style. Many of the city's most prominent and historic government buildings, memorials, monuments, and museums are built in the Neoclassical motif. Many of these buildings are located on the National Mall and the Tidal Basin. Among these buildings are the White House, United States Capitol, the Washington Monument, the West Building of the National Gallery of Art, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Jefferson Memorial.

Other notable buildings built in the Neoclassical style are the

Chinatown, DAR Constitution Hall located Downtown, the Jamie L. Whitten Building off the National Mall, and the many government buildings in Federal Triangle, including the Andrew W. Mellon Auditorium and the National Archives Building
.

Supreme Court Building (1935)
National Archives Building
(1935)

Federal

Lafayette Square. Federal architecture is defined by plain surfaces and facades with a limited use of pilasters. Some federal-style building combine the simple brick-based Georgian architecture with elements of classical design, such as columns and pediments
. Most, however, lack these classically inspired elements and are simpler in design.

Examples of Federal buildings in the city include the

Chinatown
.

The Octagon House (1799)
Dumbarton Oaks (1801)
Tudor Place (1815)
Benjamin Ogle Tayloe House (1828)

Victorian

eaves, dentils, and oriel or bay windows
.

Victorian-style row houses on 18th Street NW near Dupont Circle.
Row houses in LeDroit Park
Row houses in Adams Morgan
Victorian-style house in LeDroit Park

Romanesque Revival

Romanesque Architecture and uses castle-like designs, such as battlements, heavy usage of masonry (such as stone or brick), and pronounced arches
and towers.

Romanesque revival was a popular architectural style for the city's buildings built in the mid- to late-19th century. Many of the city's Romanesque Revival buildings are made of

Old Post Office Building, constructed in 1899 and located Downtown, is also built in this style and was the first building in the city to be constructed with a steel frame structure. Churches in D.C. that are built in the Romanesque Revival style include the Franciscan Monastery of the Holy Land in America in Brookland, the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in University Heights, and St. Aloysius Church in Near Northeast. Additionally, the Charles Sumner School near the Golden Triangle and the Arts and Industries Building on the National Mall are in this style. The Smithsonian Institution Building
, also known as "the castle", is located on the National Mall and incorporates elements of both Romanesque Revival and Gothic Revival styles into its architecture.

Smithsonian Institution Building (known as "the castle") (1855)
Arts and Industries Building (1879)
Old Post Office (1899)
Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception (1920-2017)

Gothic Revival

Gothic Revival architecture, also called Neo-Gothic, is an architectural style that revives traditional Gothic architecture but with the benefit of modern technology and tastes. As is the case with traditional Gothic architecture, buildings constructed in the Gothic Revival motif are often churches, cathedrals, and buildings used to house a large congregation of people. These structures often include tall bell towers and spires, and are made of stone. Other elements of this architecture include heavy decorative patterns, gargoyles, flying buttresses, finials, lancet windows, and hood moulds.

Many of the most prominent Gothic revival buildings in Washington, D.C. are churches and cathedrals built from the end of the 19th century through the middle of the 20th century. Notable Neo-Gothic buildings include the

Foxhall Village
.

St. Patrick's Catholic Church (1884)
Church of the Pilgrims (1903)
Barr Building (1927)
Washington National Cathedral (1906-1988)

Beaux-Arts

Popularized in Europe in the 19th century,

balustrades, pilasters, and festoons
.

This style is common for hotels and some government buildings built in the city between the 1880s and 1930s. Some examples of Beaux-Arts buildings in D.C. are the

Willard Hotel
located Downtown.

Willard Hotel (1901)
Carnegie Library of Washington D.C. (1903)
Andrew Mellon Building
(1915)

Brutalism

geometric shapes.[19][18][20]

Brutalism is present throughout Washington, D.C., but is especially visible in the city's central neighborhoods, most notably Downtown, the National Mall, and Southwest Washington. Due to the fact that Brutalism's height in popularity intersected with a major construction boom as Washington was becoming one of the world's most important cities during the third quarter of the 1900s, many of the city's prominent museums, government buildings, and office buildings built between the 1950s and 1980s were built in the Brutalist style.

Examples of such buildings are the Hirshhorn Museum on the National Mall, the James V. Forrestal Building in Southwest D.C., the Washington Hilton near Kalorama, the Robert C. Weaver Federal Building in Southwest D.C., and the J. Edgar Hoover Building located Downtown. Additionally, the interior ceilings of the Washington Metro are built with a brutalist design, characterized by low lighting, symmetry, and abstract rectangular shapes made of concrete slabs.[21]

Hirshhorn Museum (1974)
Interior ceiling of the Washington Metro
(1976)

Modernism

minimalism and rejects the decorative elements of more traditional architectural movements. Unlike Brutalism, however, this movement emphasizes the use of glass and metal to create iconic shapes and lead the viewers eye around the structure. This school leans on the notion that form follows function
.

Among the most famous buildings in Washington built under the Modernist school is the East Building of the

Watergate Complex
, located immediately north of the Kennedy Center, are Modernist buildings.

Watergate Complex (1971)
East Building of the National Gallery of Art
(1978)

Postmodernism

Capitol
.

Embassy of Canada (1989)
Embassy of Spain (1994)
International Finance Corporation headquarters (1997)
World Bank Group headquarters (1998)

Contemporary

Chinatown, the Embassy of Sweden and Iceland (known as the House of Sweden) in Georgetown, and the building housing the International Spy Museum in L'Enfant Plaza
.

House of Sweden (2006)
Arena Stage (1950; renovated 2010)
800 10th Street NW, part of the CityCenterDC complex (2013)
Pendry Hotel at the Wharf (2022)

American Craftsman and Bungalow

American Craftsman-type houses became popular in the D.C. area in the 20th century. These are most commonly found in Cleveland Park, Sixteenth Street Heights, and the Maryland suburbs of Kensington and Takoma Park.

Monuments and memorials

In addition to the city's historic government buildings, Washington is best known for its numerous monuments and memorials. These structures have been built in various architectural styles and are scattered throughout the city, though many are located on the

Georgia marble, while the statue of Thomas Jefferson, designed by Rudulph Evans, is in bronze. The Washington Monument is a large Neoclassical obelisk at the center of the National Mall in honor of the country's first president, George Washington. Inside the monument's western alcove is a bronze statue of Washington. The World War II Memorial sits at the eastern end of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool
and was designed with elements of Neoclassical architecture, particularly in the arched towers representing the states and territories during the conflict.

Famous memorials in more modern architectural styles include the

I Have a Dream Speech
.

National World War II Memorial
(2004)

Bridges

Washington, D.C. has many bridges that cross its two rivers, the Potomac River and the Anacostia River, as well as bridges allowing for pedestrian and vehicular traffic to travel over land obstacles. Many of the city's historic bridges, such as the Taft Bridge in Rock Creek Park, the Duke Ellington Bridge in Rock Creek Park, the Key Bridge over the Potomac, and the Arlington Memorial Bridge, also over the Potomac, are Neoclassical bridges with large arches made of heavy stone. The Frederick Douglass Memorial Bridge across the Anacostia was originally opened in 1950 as a swing bridge, but was recreated and reopened in 2021 as a through arch bridge. The Woodrow Wilson Bridge, which touches the southern tip of the city across the Potomac, is a double-leaf bascule bridge (or drawbridge). The Arlington Memorial Bridge also has a central bascule which can open to allow river traffic to cross. Boulder Bridge is a historic Melan-style stone bridge in Rock Creek Park.

Other bridges in the city are less artistically detailed girder or beam bridges, such as the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge over the Potomac and the 11th Street Bridges over the Anacostia. The Long Bridge is a railroad truss bridge that takes rail traffic between Washington and Virginia across the Potomac.

Taft Bridge (1906)
Francis Scott Key Bridge (1923)
Arlington Memorial Bridge (1932)
Frederick Douglass Memorial Bridge (original 1950; replacement 2021)

References

  1. ^ "Introduction: Where Oh Where Should the Capital Be?". WHHA. Archived from the original on July 4, 2017. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
  2. ^ "America's Favorite Architecture". American Institute of Architects and Harris Interactive. 2007. Archived from the original on May 10, 2011. Retrieved July 3, 2008.
  3. ^ Schwartzman, Paul (May 2, 2007). "High-Level Debate on Future of D.C." The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 13, 2012. Retrieved July 1, 2012.
  4. ^ Coleman, Christopher Bush (1920). Indiana Magazine of History. Indiana Historical Society. p. 109. Archived from the original on March 27, 2021. Retrieved December 13, 2020.
  5. ^ "The L'Enfant Plan". A Monument To Democracy: History of the Mall: The 1791 L'Enfant Plan and the Mall. National Coalition to Save Our Mall. Archived from the original on 2012-02-04. Retrieved 2012-01-08.
  6. ^ Leach, Sara Amy; Barthold, Elizabeth, HABS/HAER, NPS (1994-07-20). "L' Enfant Plan of the City of Washington, District of Columbia" (PDF). United States Department of the Interior: National Park Service: National Register of Historic Places Registration Form. National Park Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-11-05. Retrieved 2017-11-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ "William Thornton (1759–1828)". Library of Congress. Retrieved July 7, 2007.
  8. ^ "United States Capitol, Washington, D.C.: East Front Elevation, Rendering". World Digital Library. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
  9. ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved 2022-05-20.
  10. ^ Johnson, Michael (May 10, 2006). "Our White House in France?". TheColumnists.Com. Archived from the original on July 4, 2011. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
  11. ^ "Strolling Along D.C.'s Former Newspaper Row". WAMU. Retrieved 2018-03-02.
  12. ISSN 0190-8286
    . Retrieved 2018-03-02.
  13. ISBN 9781933102702
    .
  14. ^ "The History of the United States Capitol". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved February 19, 2012.
  15. ^ Allen, William C. (2001). History of the United States Capitol: A Chronicle of Design, Construction, and Politics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
  16. ISSN 0042-6636
    . Retrieved February 16, 2015.
  17. ^ Hopkins, Owen (10 September 2014). "The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture". Dezeen. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
  18. ^ a b Editorial Staff. "Brutalist architecture - a retrospective". Architecture and Design. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
  19. ^ "Brutalist Architecture London | A Guide To Brutalism". 20 Bedford Way. 2014-06-23. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
  20. ^ Harwood, Elain. "The concrete truth? Brutalism can be beautiful". BBC Arts. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  21. ^ Ables, Kelsey (March 25, 2021). "Brutalist buildings aren't unlovable. You're looking at them wrong". Washington Post. Retrieved February 14, 2022.


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