Gothic Revival architecture
Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic) is an architectural movement that after a gradual build-up beginning in the second half of the 17th century became a widespread movement in the first half of the 19th century, mostly in England. Increasingly serious and learned admirers sought to revive medieval Gothic architecture, intending to complement or even supersede the neoclassical styles prevalent at the time. Gothic Revival draws upon features of medieval examples, including decorative patterns, finials, lancet windows, and hood moulds. By the middle of the 19th century, Gothic Revival had become the pre-eminent architectural style in the Western world, only to begin to fall out of fashion in the 1880s and early 1890s.
The Gothic Revival movement's roots are intertwined with philosophical movements associated with
In parallel with the ascendancy of neo-Gothic styles in 19th century England, interest spread to the rest of Europe, Australia, Africa and the Americas; the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the construction of very large numbers of Gothic Revival structures worldwide. The influence of
Roots
The rise of evangelicalism in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries saw in England a reaction in the high church movement which sought to emphasise the continuity between the established church and the pre-Reformation Catholic church.[1] Architecture, in the form of the Gothic Revival, became one of the main weapons in the high church's armoury. The Gothic Revival was also paralleled and supported by "medievalism", which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals and curiosities. As "industrialisation" progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the picturesque such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society and portrayed pre-industrial medieval society as a golden age. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation.[2]
Gothic Revival also took on political connotations; with the "rational" and "radical" Neoclassical style being seen as associated with republicanism and liberalism (as evidenced by its use in the United States and to a lesser extent in Republican France), the more spiritual and traditional Gothic Revival became associated with monarchism and conservatism, which was reflected by the choice of styles for the rebuilt government centres of the British parliament's Palace of Westminster in London, the Canadian Parliament Buildings in Ottawa and the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest.[3]
In English literature, the architectural Gothic Revival and classical
Survival and revival
Britain and Ireland
St Columb's Cathedral, in Derry, may be considered 'Gothic Survival', as it was completed in 1633 in a Perpendicular Gothic style.[9] Similarly, Gothic architecture survived in some urban settings during the later 17th century, as shown in Oxford and Cambridge, where some additions and repairs to Gothic buildings were considered to be more in keeping with the style of the original structures than contemporary Baroque.[10]
In contrast,
Continental Europe
Throughout France in the 16th and 17th centuries, churches such as St-Eustache (1532–1640, façade 1754) in Paris and Orléans Cathedral (1601–1829) continued to be built following Gothic principles (structure of the buildings, application of tracery) with some little changes like the use of round arches instead of pointed arches and the application of some Classical details, until the arrival of Baroque architecture.[18]
In
Even in Central Europe of the late 17th and 18th centuries, where Baroque dominated, some architects used elements of the Gothic style. The most important example is Jan Santini Aichel, whose Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk in Žďár nad Sázavou, Czech Republic, represents a peculiar and creative synthesis of Baroque and Gothic.[20] An example of another and less striking use of the Gothic style in the time is the Basilica of Our Lady of Hungary in Márianosztra, Hungary, whose choir (adjacent to a Baroque nave) was long considered authentically Gothic, because the 18th-century architect used medieval shapes to emphasize the continuity of the monastic community with its 14th-century founders.[21]
Romantic challenges
During the mid-18th century rise of
Some of the earliest architectural examples of the revived are found in Scotland.
A younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for John Britton's series Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, which began appearing in 1807.
The most common use for Gothic Revival architecture was in the building of churches. Major examples of Gothic cathedrals in the U.S. include the cathedrals of
Gothic Revival architecture remained one of the most popular and long-lived of the many revival styles of architecture. Although it began to lose force and popularity after the third quarter of the 19th century in commercial, residential and industrial fields, some buildings such as churches, schools, colleges and universities were still constructed in the Gothic style, often known as "Collegiate Gothic", which remained popular in England, Canada and in the United States until well into the early to mid-20th century. Only when new materials, like steel and glass along with concern for function in everyday working life and saving space in the cities, meaning the need to build up instead of out, began to take hold did the Gothic Revival start to disappear from popular building requests.[42]
Gothic Revival in the other decorative arts
The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture. Classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace and lattice work were applied to a wide range of Gothic Revival objects. Some examples of Gothic Revival influence can be found in heraldic motifs in coats of arms, furniture with elaborate painted scenes like the whimsical Gothic detailing in English furniture is traceable as far back as Lady Pomfret's house in Arlington Street, London (1740s),[43] and Gothic fretwork in chairbacks and glazing patterns of bookcases is a familiar feature of Chippendale's Director (1754, 1762), where, for example, the three-part bookcase employs Gothic details with Rococo profusion, on a symmetrical form.[44][45] Abbotsford in the Scottish Borders, rebuilt from 1816 by Sir Walter Scott and paid for by the profits from his hugely successful, historical novels, exemplifies the "Regency Gothic" style.[g][47] Gothic Revival also includes the reintroduction of medieval clothes and dances in historical re-enactments staged especially in the second part of the 19th century, although one of the first, the Eglinton Tournament of 1839, remains the most famous.[48]
During the
By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, and Gothic blind arcading could decorate a ceramic pitcher. Writing in 1857, J. G. Crace, an influential decorator from a family of influential interior designers, expressed his preference for the Gothic style: "In my opinion there is no quality of lightness, elegance, richness or beauty possessed by any other style... [or] in which the principles of sound construction can be so well carried out".[51] The illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery. Nikolaus Pevsner's volume on the exhibits at the Great Exhibition, High Victorian Design published in 1951, was an important contribution to the academic study of Victorian taste and an early indicator of the later 20th century rehabilitation of Victorian architecture and the objects with which they decorated their buildings.[52]
In 1847, eight thousand British
Romanticism and nationalism
French neo-Gothic had its roots in the French
The French Gothic Revival was set on more sound intellectual footings by a pioneer,
In Germany, there was a renewal of interest in the completion of Cologne Cathedral. Begun in 1248, it was still unfinished at the time of the revival. The 1820s "Romantic" movement brought a new appreciation of the building, and construction work began once more in 1842, marking a German return for Gothic architecture. St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague, begun in 1344, was also completed in the mid-19th and early 20th centuries.[71] The importance of the Cologne completion project in German-speaking lands has been explored by Michael J. Lewis, "The Politics of the German Gothic Revival: August Reichensperger". Reichensperger was himself in no doubt as to the cathedral's central position in Germanic culture; "Cologne Cathedral is German to the core, it is a national monument in the fullest sense of the word, and probably the most splendid monument to be handed down to us from the past".[72]
Because of
In Belgium, a 15th-century church in
Eastern Europe also saw much Revival construction; in addition to the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest,[3] the Bulgarian National Revival saw the introduction of Gothic Revival elements into its vernacular ecclesiastical and residential architecture. The largest project of the Slavine School is the Lopushna Monastery cathedral (1850–1853), though later churches such as Saint George's Church, Gavril Genovo display more prominent vernacular Gothic Revival features.[81]
In Scotland, while a similar Gothic style to that used further south in England was adopted by figures including
In the United States, the first "Gothic stile"[87] church (as opposed to churches with Gothic elements) was Trinity Church on the Green, New Haven, Connecticut. It was designed by Ithiel Town between 1812 and 1814, while he was building his Federalist-style Center Church, New Haven next to this radical new "Gothic-style" church. Its cornerstone was laid in 1814,[88] and it was consecrated in 1816.[89] It predates St Luke's Church, Chelsea, often said to be the first Gothic-revival church in London. Though built of trap rock stone with arched windows and doors, parts of its tower and its battlements were wood. Gothic buildings were subsequently erected by Episcopal congregations in Connecticut at St John's in Salisbury (1823), St John's in Kent (1823–1826) and St Andrew's in Marble Dale (1821–1823).[87] These were followed by Town's design for Christ Church Cathedral (Hartford, Connecticut) (1827), which incorporated Gothic elements such as buttresses into the fabric of the church. St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Troy, New York, was constructed in 1827–1828 as an exact copy of Town's design for Trinity Church, New Haven, but using local stone; due to changes in the original, St. Paul's is closer to Town's original design than Trinity itself. In the 1830s, architects began to copy specific English Gothic and Gothic Revival Churches, and these "'mature Gothic Revival' buildings made the domestic Gothic style architecture which preceded it seem primitive and old-fashioned".[90]
There are many examples of
Gothic as a moral force
Pugin and "truth" in architecture
In the late 1820s,
In Contrasts: or, a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages, and similar Buildings of the Present Day (1836), Pugin expressed his admiration not only for medieval art but for the whole medieval ethos, suggesting that Gothic architecture was the product of a purer society. In The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (1841), he set out his "two great rules of design: 1st, that there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction or propriety; 2nd, that all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building". Urging modern craftsmen to seek to emulate the style of medieval workmanship as well as reproduce its methods, Pugin sought to reinstate Gothic as the true Christian architectural style.[102]
Pugin's most notable project was the Houses of Parliament in London, after its predecessor was largely destroyed in a fire in 1834.[k][104] His part in the design consisted of two campaigns, 1836–1837 and again in 1844 and 1852, with the classicist Charles Barry as his nominal superior. Pugin provided the external decoration and the interiors, while Barry designed the symmetrical layout of the building, causing Pugin to remark, "All Grecian, Sir; Tudor details on a classic body".[105]
Ruskin and Venetian Gothic
John Ruskin supplemented Pugin's ideas in his two influential theoretical works, The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) and The Stones of Venice (1853). Finding his architectural ideal in Venice, Ruskin proposed that Gothic buildings excelled above all other architecture because of the "sacrifice" of the stone-carvers in intricately decorating every stone. In this, he drew a contrast between the physical and spiritual satisfaction which a medieval craftsman derived from his work, and the lack of these satisfactions afforded to modern, industrialised labour.[l][107]
By declaring the
Ecclesiology and funerary style
In England, the
The development of the private
Not every architect or client was swept away by this tide. Although Gothic Revival succeeded in becoming an increasingly familiar style of architecture, the attempt to associate it with the notion of high church superiority, as advocated by Pugin and the ecclesiological movement, was anathema to those with ecumenical or nonconformist principles. Alexander "Greek" Thomson launched a famous attack; "We are told we should adopt [Gothic] because it is the Christian style, and this most impudent assertion has been accepted as sound doctrine even by earnest and intelligent Protestants; whereas it ought only to have force with those who believe that Christian truth attained its purest and most spiritual development at the period when this style of architecture constituted its corporeal form".[117] Those rejecting the link between Gothic and Catholicism looked to adopt it solely for its aesthetic romantic qualities, to combine it with other styles, or look to northern European Brick Gothic for a more plain appearance; or in some instances all three of these, as at the non-denominational Abney Park Cemetery in east London, designed by William Hosking FSA in 1840.[118]
Viollet-le-Duc and Iron Gothic
France had lagged slightly in entering the neo-Gothic scene, but produced a major figure in the revival in
It had in fact been used in "Gothic" buildings since the earliest days of the revival. In some cases, cast iron enabled something like a perfection of medieval design. It was only with Ruskin and the archaeological Gothic's demand for historical truth that iron, whether it was visible or not, was deemed improper for a Gothic building. Ultimately, the utility of iron won out: "substituting a cast iron shaft for a granite, marble or stone column is not bad, but one must agree that it cannot be considered as an innovation, as the introduction of a new principle. Replacing a stone or wooden lintel by an iron breastsummer is very good".[122] He strongly opposed illusion, however: reacting against the casing of a cast iron pillar in stone, he wrote; "il faut que la pierre paraisse bien être de la pierre; le fer, du fer; le bois, du bois" (stone must appear to be stone; iron, iron; wood, wood).[123]
The arguments against modern construction materials began to collapse in the mid-19th century as great prefabricated structures such as the glass and iron Crystal Palace and the glazed courtyard of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History were erected, which appeared to embody Gothic principles.[o][125][126] Between 1863 and 1872 Viollet-le-Duc published his Entretiens sur l'architecture, a set of daring designs for buildings that combined iron and masonry.[127] Though these projects were never realised, they influenced several generations of designers and architects, notably Antoni Gaudí in Spain and, in England, Benjamin Bucknall, Viollet's foremost English follower and translator, whose masterpiece was Woodchester Mansion.[128] The flexibility and strength of cast-iron freed neo-Gothic designers to create new structural Gothic forms impossible in stone, as in Calvert Vaux's cast-iron Gothic bridge in Central Park, New York dating from the 1860. Vaux enlisted openwork forms derived from Gothic blind-arcading and window tracery to express the spring and support of the arching bridge, in flexing forms that presage Art Nouveau.[129]
Collegiate Gothic
In the United States, Collegiate Gothic was a late and literal resurgence of the English Gothic Revival, adapted for American college and university campuses. The term "Collegiate Gothic" originated from American architect Alexander Jackson Davis's handwritten description of his own "English Collegiate Gothic Mansion" of 1853 for the Harrals of Bridgeport.[130][131] By the 1890s, the movement was known as "Collegiate Gothic".[132]
The firm of
The movement continued into the 20th century, with Cope & Stewardson's campus for Washington University in St. Louis (1900–1909),[139] Charles Donagh Maginnis's buildings at Boston College (1910s) (including Gasson Hall),[140] Ralph Adams Cram's design for the Princeton University Graduate College (1913),[141] and James Gamble Rogers' reconstruction of the campus of Yale University (1920s).[142] Charles Klauder's Gothic Revival skyscraper on the University of Pittsburgh's campus, the Cathedral of Learning (1926) exhibited Gothic stylings both inside and out, while using modern technologies to make the building taller.[143]
Vernacular adaptations and the revival in the Antipodes
New Zealand and Australia
Australia, in particular in Melbourne and Sydney, saw the construction of large numbers of Gothic Revival buildings.
Global Gothic
Other examples in the east include the late 19th century Church of the Saviour, Beijing, constructed on the orders of the Guangxu Emperor and designed by the Catholic missionary and architect Alphonse Favier;[164] and the Wat Niwet Thammaprawat in the Bang Pa-In Royal Palace in Bangkok, by the Italian Joachim Grassi.[165] In Indonesia, (the former colony of the Dutch East Indies), the Jakarta Cathedral was begun in 1891 and completed in 1901 by Dutch architect Antonius Dijkmans;[166] while further north in the islands of the Philippines, the San Sebastian Church, designed by architects Genaro Palacios and Gustave Eiffel, was consecrated in 1891 in the still Spanish colony.[167] Church building in South Africa was extensive, with little or no effort to adopt vernacular forms. Robert Gray, the first bishop of Cape Town, wrote; "I am sure we do not overestimate the importance of real Churches built after the fashion of our English churches". He oversaw the construction of some fifty such buildings between 1848 and his death in 1872.[r][169] South America saw a later flourishing of the Revival, particularly in church architecture,[170] for example the Metropolitan Cathedral of São Paulo in Brazil by the German Maximilian Emil Hehl,[171] and the Cathedral of La Plata in Argentina.[172]
20th and 21st centuries
The Gothic style dictated the use of structural members in
Some architects persisted in using Neo-Gothic tracery as applied ornamentation to an iron skeleton underneath, for example in Cass Gilbert's 1913 Woolworth Building[173] skyscraper in New York and Raymond Hood's 1922 Tribune Tower in Chicago.[174] The Tower Life Building in San Antonio, completed in 1929, is noted for the arrays of decorative gargoyles on its upper floors.[175] But, over the first half of the century, Neo-Gothic was supplanted by Modernism, although some modernist architects saw the Gothic tradition of architectural form entirely in terms of the "honest expression" of the technology of the day, and saw themselves as heirs to that tradition, with their use of rectangular frames and exposed iron girders.
In spite of this, the Gothic Revival continued to exert its influence, simply because many of its more massive projects were still being built well into the second half of the 20th century, such as Giles Gilbert Scott's Liverpool Cathedral[176] and the Washington National Cathedral (1907–1990).[177] Ralph Adams Cram became a leading force in American Gothic, with his most ambitious project the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York (claimed to be the largest cathedral in the world), as well as Collegiate Gothic buildings at Princeton University.[178] Cram said "the style hewn out and perfected by our ancestors [has] become ours by uncontested inheritance".[179]
Though the number of new Gothic Revival buildings declined sharply after the 1930s, they continue to be built. St Edmundsbury Cathedral, the cathedral of Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk, was expanded and reconstructed in a neo-Gothic style between the late 1950s and 2005, and a commanding stone central tower was added.[180] A new church in the Gothic style is planned for St. John Vianney Parish in Fishers, Indiana.[181][182] The Whittle Building at Peterhouse, University of Cambridge, opened in 2016, matches the neo-Gothic style of the rest of the courtyard in which it is situated.[183]
Appreciation
By 1872, the Gothic Revival was mature enough in the United Kingdom that
Gallery
Europe
-
Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest, Hungary: 1885–1904
-
Manchester Town Hall, England: 1868–1877
-
New Town Hall, Munich, Germany: 1867–1874
-
Co-cathedral, Osijek, Croatia: 1898
-
St Pancras railway station, London, England: 1863–1868
-
Rossio Station, Lisbon, Portugal: 1886–1887
-
Schwerin Castle, Germany: 1845–1857
-
Sturdza Palace, Iași County, Romania: 1880–1904
-
Vienna City Hall, Austria: 1872–1883
-
De Haar Castle, Utrecht, The Netherlands: 1892–1907
North America
-
Cathedral of Santa Ana, El Salvador: 1906–1913
-
Rockefeller College, Princeton, USA: 1877
-
Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico: 1897–1972
-
St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, USA: 1858–1879
South America
-
Basilica of Our Lady of Luján, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina: 1890–1935
-
Basilica del Salvador, Santiago, Chile: 1913–1954
-
Capilla Cristo Pobre, Jauja, Peru: 1884–1925
-
Cathedral of São Pedro de Alcântara, Petrópolis, Brazil: 1884–1925
-
Castle of Fiscal Island, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 1881–1889
-
Church of Our Lady of Lourdes, Canela, Brazil: 1953–1987
Australia and New Zealand
-
University of Sydney Quadrangle, Sydney, Australia: 1854-1862
-
St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne, Australia: 1858-1939
-
ChristChurch Cathedral, New Zealand: 1864–1904
-
Auckland High Court, New Zealand: 1865–1867
-
St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney, Australia: 1868–1928
-
St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, Australia: 1880–1891
-
Otago Boys' High School, New Zealand: 1882–1885
-
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Bendigo, Australia: 1895–1901
Asia
-
Church of the Saviour, Baku, Azerbaijan: 1896–1899
-
Basilica of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Pondicherry, India: 1902–1907
-
Jakarta Cathedral, Indonesia: 1891–1901
-
Basílica Menor de San Sebastián, Manila, Philippines: 1888–1891
-
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Guangzhou, China: 1861–1888
-
Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan: 1877
Decorative arts
-
Cup and saucer, produced by the Sèvres porcelain factory and decorated by Pierre Huard, 1827, porcelain, Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, US
-
Clock, unknown French maker, c. 1835–1840, gilt and patinated bronze,Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris
-
Pair of vases, by Alexandre-Évariste Fragonard and the Sèvres porcelain factory, manufactured in 1832, decorated in 1844, hard-paste porcelain, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
-
Desk, byKimbel and Cabus, c. 1877, oak, nickel-plated brass and iron hardware, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Footnotes
- ^ The driver of the redecoration at University College was Sir Roger Newdigate, who also undertook the "Gothicisation" of his Warwickshire country house, Arbury Hall, over the course of 50 years in the later half of the 18th century.[16]
- ^ This was Walpole's appraisal of the sham castle at Hagley Park, Worcestershire designed by his friend, Sanderson Miller.[24]
- ^ Tours of the house, conducted by Walpole's housekeeper, Margaret Young, proved hugely popular. Walpole wrote to a friend; "I am so tormented by droves of people coming to see my house, and Margaret gets such sums of money by showing it, that I have a mind to marry her".[25]
- ^ Alfred's Hall, built by Lord Bathurst on his Cirencester Park estate between 1721 and 1732 in homage to Alfred the Great,[28] is perhaps the earliest Gothic Revival structure in England.[29]
- ^ The little-researched Clearwell Castle in Gloucestershire, by Roger Morris who also undertook work at Inveraray, has been described as "the earliest Gothick Revival castle in England".[31]
- ^ Thomas Rickman trained as an accountant and his posthumous famed rested on his antiquarian researches, rather than his considerable corpus of buildings, which were disparaged as the creations of a "self-taught" architect. It was only towards the end of his life, and after, that the position of architect was recognised as a profession, with the establishment of the Institute of British Architects in 1834 and the Architectural Association in 1847.[39]
- ^ Sir Walter Scott's novels popularised the Medieval period and their influence went well beyond architecture. The historian Robert Bartlett notes that, at one point in the mid-19th century, four different stage adaptations of Ivanhoe were running simultaneously in London theatres, and nine separate operas were based on the work.[46]
- ^ In Montreal, Quebec, Canada, the earlier neo-Gothic Basilica of Notre Dame (1824) belongs to the Gothic Revival exported from Great Britain and the United States. Its architect, James O'Donnell, was an Irish immigrant with no known connections to France.[68]
- ^ The choice of the canonized wife of King Clovis, the first Christian king of a unified France, held significance for the Bourbons.[69]
- ^ Pugin subsequently recanted, writing in the second of his two lectures, The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture; "A man who remains any length of time in a modern Gothic room, and escapes without being wounded by some of its minutiae, may consider himself extremely fortunate. There are often as many pinnacles and gables about a pier glass frame as are to be found in a church. I have perpetrated many of these enormities in the furniture I designed some years ago for Windsor Castle... Collectively they appeared a complete burlesque of pointed design".[98]
- ^ Pugin recorded his delight at the destruction of what he considered the wholly inadequate earlier restorations of James Wyatt and John Soane. "You have doubtless seen the accounts of the late great conflagration at Westminster. There is nothing much to regret...a vast amount of Soane's mixtures and Wyatt's heresies have been consigned to oblivion. Oh it was a glorious sight to see his composition mullions and cement pinnacles flying and cracking."[103]
- ^ Ruskin also had an abhorrence of the contemporary "restorer" of Gothic buildings. Writing in the Preface to the first edition of his The Seven Lamps of Architecture, he remarked; "[My] whole time has been lately occupied in taking drawings from the one side of buildings, of which masons were knocking down the other".[106]
- Midland Grand Hotel is unfounded.[109]
- ^ In the Preface to his Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century (1854–1868) (Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle), le-Duc wrote of the ignorance of Gothic architecture prevalent at the start of the 19th century: "as for [buildings] which had been constructed between the end of the Roman empire and the fifteenth century, they were scarcely spoken of except to be cited as the products of ignorance or barbarousness".[119]
- ^ Ruskin was unimpressed by Joseph Paxton's Crystal Palace, describing it as nothing but "a greenhouse larger than ever greenhouse was built before".[124]
- ^ William Burges’s unexecuted plans for the Sir J. J. School of Art, the “most marvellous design that he ever made”, were described as “compelling rigid thirteenth century Gothic to fulfil the requirements of the torrid zone”.[156]
- ^ Thomas R. Metcalf, in his study An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and the British Raj, records a debate at the Royal Society of Arts in London in 1873 between proponents of the European and indigenous approaches. While T. Roger Smith contended that, "as our administration exhibits European justice, order, law and honour, so our buildings ought to hold up a high standard of European art", William Emerson argued that "it is impossible for the architecture of the west to be suitable for the natives of the east".[162]
- ^ An unusual feature of the church building programme overseen by Bishop Gray was that the majority of the churches were designed by his wife, Sophy, a considerable rarity at a time when women were almost entirely excluded from the professions.[168]
- ^ In his speech in 1976, on receiving the RIBA Gold Medal, Sir John Summerson recalled Rendel's contribution; "It was well known that Victorian architecture was bad or screamingly funny, or both. Rendel begged to differ, but what really stunned his audience was that he knew, and knew in great detail, what he was talking about".[186]
- ^ Kenneth Clark, despite his sympathetic approach, recalled that during his Oxford years it was generally believed not only that Keble College was "the ugliest building in the world" but that its architect was John Ruskin, author of The Stones of Venice. The college was built to the designs of the architect William Butterfield.[191]
See also
Sub-varieties of the Gothic Revival style
- Carpenter Gothic
- Collegiate Gothic
- Dissenting Gothic
- National Romantic Style
- Neo-Manueline
- Ruskinian Gothic
- Scottish Baronial
- Tudor Revival
- Black-and-White Revival
Locale
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Further reading
- Christian Amalvi, Le Goût du moyen âge, (Paris: Plon), 1996. The first French monograph on French Gothic Revival.
- "Le Gothique retrouvé" avant Viollet-le-Duc. Exhibition, 1979. The first French exhibition concerned with French Neo-Gothic.
- Hunter-Stiebel, Penelope, Of knights and spires: Gothic revival in France and Germany, 1989. ISBN 0-614-14120-6
- Phoebe B Stanton, Pugin (New York, Viking Press 1972, ©1971). ISBN 0-670-58216-6
- Summerson, Sir John, 1948. "Viollet-le-Duc and the rational point of view" collected in Heavenly Mansions and other essays on Architecture.
- Sir Thomas G. Jackson, Modern Gothic Architecture (1873), Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture (1913), and three-volume Gothic Architecture in France, England and Italy (1901).