Arundo donax
Arundo donax | |
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Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Monocots |
Clade: | Commelinids |
Order: | Poales |
Family: | Poaceae |
Genus: | Arundo |
Species: | A. donax
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Binomial name | |
Arundo donax | |
Synonyms[2] | |
List
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Arundo donax is a tall
Arundo donax grows in damp soils, either fresh or moderately saline, and is native to the
Description
Arundo donax generally grows to 6 metres (20 ft) in height, or in ideal conditions can exceed 10 metres (33 ft). The hollow stems are 2 to 3 centimetres (0.79 to 1.18 in) in diameter. The grey-green swordlike leaves are alternate, 30 to 60 centimetres (12 to 24 in) long and 2 to 6 centimetres (0.79 to 2.36 in) wide with a tapered tip, and have a hairy tuft at the base. Overall, the plant resembles an outsize common reed (Phragmites australis) or a bamboo (subfamily Bambusoideae).
A. donax
Biology
Arundo donax is a tall, perennial grass in the subfamily
The base growth temperature reported for giant reed is 7 °C,[13] with a maximum temperature of 30 °C. It has a high photosynthetic capacity, associated with absence of light saturation. Carbon dioxide exchange rates are high compared to other C3 and C4 species; maximum CO2 uptake ranged from 19.8 to 36.7 μmol/s·m2 under natural conditions, depending on irradiance and leaf age. Carbon dioxide exchange is regulated by leaf conductance.[14]
Studies have found this plant to be rich in active
have also been found.The dried rhizome with the stem removed has been found to contain 0.0057%
Genetic background
In most areas where giant reed grows (
Ecology
Giant reed is adapted to a wide variety of ecological conditions, but is generally associated with riparian and wetland systems. It is distributed across the southern
Invasiveness and management
Arundo is a highly invasive plant in southwestern North American rivers, and its promotion as a biofuel in other regions is of great concern to environmental scientists and land managers.[22] Arundo donax was introduced from the Mediterranean to California in the 1820s for roofing material and erosion control in drainage canals in the Los Angeles area.[23][10] Through spread and subsequent plantings as an ornamental plant, and for use as reeds in woodwind instruments, it has become naturalised throughout warm coastal freshwaters of North America, and its range continues to spread.
It has also been planted widely through South America and Australasia[23][12] and in New Zealand it is listed under the National Pest Plant Accord as an "unwanted organism".[24] Despite its invasive characteristics in regions around the world where it is not native, Arundo is being promoted by the energy industry as a bio-fuel crop. Some of the regions, such as the southeastern United States have natural disturbances, such as hurricanes and floods, that could widely disperse this plant.
It is among the fastest-growing terrestrial plants in the world (nearly 10 centimetres (3.9 in) per day).
Arundo donax appears to be highly adapted to fires. It is highly flammable throughout the year, and during the drier months of the year (July to October), it can increase the probability, intensity, and spread of wildfires through the riparian environment, changing the communities from flood-defined to fire-defined communities.[26] After fires, A. donax rhizomes can resprout quickly, outgrowing native plants, which can result in large stands of A. donax along riparian corridors.[27][23] Fire events thus push the system further toward mono-specific stands of A. donax.
A waterside plant community dominated by A. donax may also have reduced canopy shading of the in-stream habitat, which may result in increased water temperatures. This may lead to decreased oxygen concentrations and lower diversity of aquatic animals.[23]
As the impact of Arundo donax increased in the environment and native species various efforts have been taken to reduce its population. It has few natural enemies in its introduced range. Several Mediterranean insects have been imported into the United States as
Other remedies like using mechanical force have also been employed, since outside its native range Arundo donax does not reproduce by seeds, so removing its root structure can be effective at controlling it. Preventing it from getting sunlight will deplete the plant of its resources and eventually kill it.[10] Systemic herbicides and glyphosate are also used as chemical remedies.
The US Department of Homeland Security considers this plant invasive and in 2007 began researching biological controls.[28] In 2015, Texas Senator Carlos Uresti passed legislation to create a program to eradicate Arundo donax using herbicides and the Arundo wasp.[29]
In New Zealand's northernmost region, Arundo donax crowds out native plants,[30] reduces wildlife habitat, contributes to higher fire frequency and intensity, and modifies river hydrology.[31]
Uses
Energy crop
.Giant reed is one of the most promising
Cultivation
Establishment is a critical point of cultivation.
A. donax maintains a high productive aptitude without irrigation under semi-arid climate conditions. In Southern Italy, a trial was carried out testing the yields performance of 39 genotypes, and an average yields of 22.1 t/ha dry matter in the second year were reached,[37] a comparable result with others results obtained in Spain (22.5 t/ha) as well as in South Greece (19.0 t/ha). Several reports underlined that it is more economical to grow giant reed under moderate irrigation.
In order to evaluate different management practices, nitrogen fertilizer and input demand was evaluated in a 6-year field study conducted at the University of Pisa. Fertilizer enhanced the productive capacity in the initial years, but as the years go by and as the radical apparatus progressively deepens, the differences due to fertilizer decrease until disappearing. Harvest time and plant density were found to not affect the biomass yields.
Due to its high growth rate and superior resource-capture capacity (light, water and nutrients), A. donax is not affected by weed competition from the second year. An application of post-emergence treatment is usually recommended. Giant reed has few known
To remove giant reed at the end of the crop cycle, there are mainly two methods: mechanical or chemical.[38] An excavator can be useful to dig out the rhizomes or alternatively a single late-season application of 3% glyphosate onto the foliar mass is efficient and effective with least hazardous to biota.[39] Glyphosate was selected as the most appropriate product for specific considerations on efficacy, environmental safety, soil residual activity, operator safety, application timing, and cost-effectiveness. However, glyphosate is only effective in fall when plants are actively transporting nutrients to the root zone, and multiple retreatments are usually needed. Other herbicides registered for aquatic use can be very effective in controlling Arundo at other times of the year.
Biofuel
Arundo donax is a strong candidate for use as a renewable biofuel source because of its fast growth rate and its ability to grow in different soil types and climatic conditions. A. donax will produce an average of three kilograms of biomass per square metre (12 tons per acre/year) once established.
Studies in the European Union have identified A. donax as the most productive and lowest impact of all energy biomass crops (see FAIR REPORT E.U. 2004).
Its ability to grow for 20 to 25 years without replanting is also significant.
In the UK it is considered suitable for planting in and around water areas.[41]
Arundo donax grown in Australia was demonstrated as potential feedstock for producing advanced biofuels through hydrothermal liquefaction.[42]
Outside its native range, the interest as a biofuel crop needs to be balanced against its major invasive potential.
Carbon sequestration
An increased environmental concern is the health of soil system as one of the main factors affecting quality and productivity of agroecosystems. Around the world, several regions are subjected to a decline of fertility due to an increasing degradation of soils, loss of organic matter and increasing desertification.[43] Recently research was carried out to evaluate, in the same pedological and climatic conditions, the impact of three long-term (14 years) agricultural systems, continuous giant reed, natural grassland, and cropping sequence, on the organic-matter characteristics and microbial biomass size in soil.[44] The study pointed out that a long term Giant reed cropping system, characterized by low tillage intensity, positively affect the amount and quality of soil organic matter. Arundo donax showed greater values than tilled management system for total soil organic carbon, light fraction carbon, dissolved organic carbon, and microbial biomass carbon. Regarding the humification parameters, there were noticed any statistically differences between giant reed and a cropping sequence (cereals-legumes cultivated conventionally).
Ethnobotany
Arundo donax has been cultivated throughout Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East for thousands of years.
This plant may have been used in combination with
Construction
Mature reeds are used in construction as raw material, given their excellent properties and tubular shape. Its resemblance to bamboo permits their combination in buildings, though Arundo is more flexible.
In rural regions of Spain, for centuries there has existed a technique named cañizo, consisting of rectangles of approximately 2 by 1 meters of woven reeds to which clay or plaster could be added. A properly insulated cañizo in a roof could keep its mechanical properties for over 60 years. Its high silicon content allows the cane to keep its qualities through time. Its low weight, flexibility, good adherence of the cañizo fabric and low price of the raw material have been the main reasons that this technique has been used. However, in the last decades, the rural migration from the countryside to urban centres and the extensive exploitation of land has reduced its use.
Recently, initiatives are being taken to recover the use of this material, combining ancient techniques from southern Iraq mudhif (reed houses) with new materials.
Diverse associations and collectives, such as CanyaViva, are pioneering in the research in combination with Spanish universities.
Musical instruments
Ancient Greeks used cane to make
A. donax is still the principal source material of
Other uses
When young, A. donax is readily browsed by ruminants, but it becomes unpalatable when maturing.[48] A. donax has also been used in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment.[49]
References
Notes
- .
- ^ "Arundo donax L." Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-5213-6675-5
- ^ a b CABI, 2020. Arundo donax (giant reed). In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/1940
- ^ a b Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Arundo donax. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=112 on 12-01-2020.
- ^ a b Perdue, R.E. Arundo donax—Source of musical reeds and industrial cellulose. Econ Bot 12, 368–404 (1958). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860024
- ^ "Catalogue of Life 2008".
- ^ a b c Lambert, A.M., Dudley, T.L. and Saltonstall, K., 2010. Ecology and impacts of the large-statured invasive grasses Arundo donax and Phragmites australis in North America. Invasive Plant Science and Management, 3(4), pp. 489–494.
- ^ (Johnson et al. 2006)
- ^ a b c d e f g Harrington, C. 1; Hayes, A. (2004). The Weed Workers' Handbook (PDF). Richmond, CA: The Watershed Project: California Invasive Plant Council.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - OCLC 37696259.
- ^ ISSN 0043-1737.
- degree-daybased equation. Aquat. Bot. 85, 282–288.
- ^ Rossa B, TuAers AV, Naidoo G, von Willert DJ. 1998. Arundo donax L. (Poaceae)—a C3 species with unusually high photosynthetic capacity. Botanica Acta. 111:216–21.
- ^ a b c d Erowid Arundo Donax Info Page 1
- ^ Erowid Arundo Donax Info Page 3
- ^ Owen, S.M., Boissard, C., and Hewitt, C. N. Atmospheric Environment, 35, 2001, pp 5393–5409
- ^ Saltonstall, K., Lambert, A., Meyerson, L.A., 2010. Genetics and reproduction of common (Phragmites australis) and giant reed (Arundo donax). Invasive Plant Sci. Manag. 3, 495-505.
- ^ Bhanwra R.K., Choda S.P., Kumar S. 1982. Comparative embryology of some grasses. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy, 48, 152–162.
- ^ Mariani C., R. Cabrini, A. Danin, P. Piffanelli, A. Fricano, S. Gomarasca, M. Dicandilo, F. Grassi and C. Soave. 2010 Origin, diffusion and reproduction of the giant reed (Arundo donax L.) a promising weedy energy crop. Annals of Applied Biology. 157: 191–202.
- ^ Ahmad R., Liow P.S., Spencer D.F., Jasieniuk M. 2008. Molecular evidence for a single genetic clone of invasive Arundo donax in the United States. Aquatic Botany. 88: 113–120.
- ^ Lambert, A.M., Dudley, T.L., Saltonstall, K., 2010. Ecology and impacts of the large-statured invasive grasses Arundo donax and Phragmites australis in North America. Invasive Plant Sci. Manag. 3, 489-494.
- ^ OCLC 44494430.
- ^ "Giant reed". Biosecurity New Zealand. Retrieved 2009-01-13.
- ^ ISSN 0031-9422.
- ^ Coffman, G., Ambrose, R., Rundel, P., 2010. Wildfire promotes dominance of invasive giant reed (Arundo donax) in riparian ecosystems. Biol. Invasions 12, 2723-2734.
- OCLC 44509994.
- ^ "Razing Cane". 2009-07-07.
- ^ Aguilar, Julian (2016-04-05). "New Carrizo Eradication Effort Reignites Old Debate". Texas Tribune.
- ^ "New Zealand imports insects to fight plant invader". BBC News. 2017-01-19. Retrieved 2017-01-21.
- ^ McAllister (2011). "Ecological impact of invasive Arundo donax populations in New Zealand: a 10 year study". Journal of Ecology. 53 (9): 62–67.
- ^ Lewandowski I, Scurlock JMO, Lindvall E, Christou M. 2003. The development and current status of perennial rhizomatous grasses as energy crops in the US and Europe. Biomass and Bioenergy. 25:335–61.
- ^ Sanderson K. 2006. US biofuels: A field in ferment. Nature 444: 673-676.
- ^ Heaton, E., Voigt, T., and Long, S.P. 2004. A quantitative review comparing the yields of two candidate C4 perennial biomass crops in relation to nitrogen, temperature and water. Biomass and Bioenergy. 27:21–30.
- ^ Facchini 1941 La canna gentile per la Produzione Della cellulose mobile. L'impresa agricolo-Industriale di Torviscosa
- ^ Christou M, Mardikis M, Alexopoulou E. 2000. Propagation material and plant density effects on the Arundo donax yields. In: Biomass for energy and industry: proceeding of the First World Conference, Sevilla, Spain, June 5–9, 2000. p. 1622–8.
- ^ Cosentino et al. 2006 First results on evaluation of Arundo donax (L.) clones collected in Southern Italy
- ^ Jackson 1998, Chemical control of giant reed (Arundo donax) and salt cedar (Tamarix ramosissima).
- ^ Spencer, D.F., Tan, W., Liow, P., Ksander, G., Whitehand, L.C., Weaver, S., Olson, J., Newhauser, M., 2008. Evaluation of glyphosate for managing giant reed (Arundo donax). InvasivePlantSci.Manage.1,248–254.
- ^ a b Angelini, L.G., Ceccarinia, L., and Bonarib E.; European Journal of Agronomy, 22, 2005, pp 375-389
- ^ BS 7370-5 Recommendations for maintenance of water areas
- .
- ^ Albaladejo, J., and E. Díaz. 1990. Degradation and regeneration of the soil in a Mediterranean Spanish coastline: Trials in Lucdeme project (Degradación y regeneración del suelo en el litoral mediterráneo español: Experiencias en el proyecto LUCDEME). In Soil degradation and rehabilitation in Mediterranean environmental conditions (Degradación y regeneración del suelo en condiciones ambientales medíterráneas), ed. J. Albaladejo et al., 191–214. Madrid: CSIC.
- ^ Riffaldi, R., Saviozzi, A., Cardelli, A., Bulleri, F., and Angelini, L. 2010. Comparison of Soil Organic-Matter Characteristics under the Energy Crop Giant Reed, Cropping Sequence and Natural Grass. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 41:173–180.
- ^ S. Ghosal, S. K. Dutta, A. K. Sanyal, and Bhattacharya, "Arundo donax L. (Gramineae), Phytochemical and Pharmacological Evaluation," in the Journal of Medical Chemistry, vol. 12 (1969), p. 480.
- Novello & Co, 1 December 1890
- ^ Opperman, Kalman (1956). Handbook for making and Adjusting Single Reeds. New York, New York: Chappell & Co. p. 40.
- ^ Heuzé V., Tran G., Giger-Reverdin S., Lebas F., 2015. Giant reed (Arundo donax). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/502 Last updated on December 7, 2015, 17:39
- ^ Calheiros, Cristina SC, et al. "Use of constructed wetland systems with Arundo and Sarcocornia for polishing high salinity tannery wastewater[dead link]." Journal of environmental management 95.1 (2012): 66-71.
External links
- Project on influence of Arundo donax in California
- Arundo donax, Fire Effects Information System, United States Forest Service
- The Power in Plants: Biofuels and the Giant Cane Debate (UNC News21: Powering A Nation)
- Giant Reed, University of California Center for Invasive Species Research
- Species Profile- Giant Reed (Arundo donax), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Giant Reed.
- "Giant Reed", AquaPlant Profile
- Arundo donax in Guide to Invasive and Hegemonic Grasses