Hauran
The Hauran (
From the mid-1st century BC, the region was governed by the
Under the Romans, the grain of Batanea and the wine of Auranitis were important for imperial trade, and throughout its history, the Hauran was the major source of the
The wide availability of
Geography
Geographic definition
Though its geographic definition may vary, the Hauran generally consists of the following subregions: the Hauran plain, which forms the heart of the region;
To the south of
Batanea.[5]
The plain of Hauran stretches between the Marj plain of Damascus southward into modern-day Jordan where it borders
Topography
A common feature throughout the Hauran is the basaltic topography, though altitude and soil vary between the Hauran's subregions.[2] The Nuqrah, Jaydur and Jabal Hauran consist of arable land derived from decomposed basaltic, volcanic rock.[1][2] The Nuqrah is a relatively low plateau measuring roughly 100 by 75 kilometers (62 mi × 47 mi) with an average elevation of 600 meters (2,000 ft) above sea level.[1] Its land is characterized by vast, contiguous tracts of fertile, basalt-derived soil.[8] In contrast to the Nuqrah, the Jaydur's landscape is more fractured and rocky. Its average elevation ranges between 600 and 900 meters (2,000 and 3,000 ft) above sea level, with some volcanic cones reaching above 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level, including Tell al-Hara.[8] In terms of its landscape and cinder cones, the Jaydur is a topographic continuation of the Golan Heights.[8] The Jabal Hauran was formed by large lava flows into a roughly 60 by 30 kilometers (37 mi × 19 mi) massif of volcanic hills, the highest point of which is over 1,800 meters (5,900 ft) above sea level in the range's center.[8][10] The Lajat comprises a topography of depressions, rifts and ridges with scattered arable patches, and is characterized by rocky soil and scarce vegetation.[2] Its average elevation is between 600–700 meters (2,000–2,300 ft) above sea level,[11] though some of the area's volcanic cones are over 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) with the highest over 1,150 meters (3,770 ft).[11]
Climate
Rainfall above the 200 millimetres (7.9 in) mark is characteristic throughout the Hauran,[2] but otherwise climate and precipitation levels vary between its subregions.[2] The relatively frequent rainfall and the abundance of water springs have historically allowed the Nuqrah and Jabal Hauran to become major grain-growing regions.[1] The Hauran plain receives an average 250 millimetres (9.8 in) of rainfall, which allows the plains to support stable, grain-based agriculture.[2] Jabal Hauran receives considerably greater rainfall, which supports more orchard and tree-based cultivation.[2] Jabal Hauran is frequently covered by snow during the winter.[10]
City | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Annual Max/Min |
Citation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bosra | 12/2 | 13/3 | 17/5 | 22/8 | 27/12 | 31/15 | 32/16 | 32/16 | 31/15 | 27/12 | 20/8 | 14/3 | 23/10 | [12] |
Daraa | 13/3 | 15/4 | 18/6 | 24/9 | 28/12 | 31/16 | 33/18 | 33/19 | 31/16 | 28/13 | 21/8 | 15/5 | 24/11 | [13] |
Nawa | 13/4 | 15/4 | 18/6 | 22/9 | 28/13 | 31/16 | 32/18 | 33/18 | 31/16 | 28/13 | 21/9 | 15/5 | 24/11 | [14] |
Al-Ramtha |
14/4 | 15/4 | 18/7 | 22/10 | 27/14 | 31/17 | 32/19 | 32/19 | 30/17 | 27/14 | 22/9 | 15/5 | 24/11 | [15] |
Al-Suwayda | 10/2 | 12/3 | 15/5 | 20/8 | 25/11 | 29/14 | 30/16 | 31/16 | 29/14 | 26/12 | 19/8 | 13/4 | 22/9 | [16] |
History
There are records of settlements in the Hauran in the Ancient Egyptian
Hellenistic period
During the
Roman era
Herodian period
By 63 BC the Roman Empire extended its influence to all of Syria and initially charged local princes with keeping order in Auranitis (Jabal Hauran), Batanea (Nuqrah) and Trachonitis (Lajat).[1][19] However, the districts remained largely in the hands of nomadic tribes.[20] To supplement their meager income, these nomads often raided nearby settlements as far as Damascus, and robbed pilgrims traversing the region.[19] When Zenodorus, a prince entrusted with the Hauran districts' security, collaborated with the nomads, the Romans transferred the districts to their Judean client king, Herod the Great in 23 BC.[19]
After Herod quelled resistance in the Hauran during the early years of his rule, the brigandage of the nomads largely ceased.
Post-annexation
By the early 2nd century AD, the last vassal kings of the Hauran region, Agrippa II (r. 53–100 AD) of the Herodian Tetrarchy and Rabbel II (r. 70–106 AD) of the Nabatean Kingdom, had died and Rome under Emperor Trajan (r. 98–117) no longer saw the need for local intermediaries.[23] The deaths of the Herodian and Nabatean monarchs in relatively quick succession provided an opportunity for the Romans to absorb their domains. In 106, the empire formally annexed the entire Hauran, incorporating its southern part in Arabia Province and its northern part in Syria Province.[1] The provincial boundary followed the boundary just north of the Adraa–Bosra–Salkhad line that had separated the Herodian and Nabatean kingdoms.[24] This administrative division remained intact for much of the 2nd century.[24] This period, under the Antonine emperors who ruled until 180 AD, saw consistent stability, development and prosperity.[25]
During the late 2nd century, imperial order gradually weakened and political instability ensued.[25] In 244 a native of the Hauran, Philip the Arab, became emperor and turned his hometown of Shahba (Philippopolis) into an imperial city.[25] Though Shahba and Auranitis prospered, the general state of the empire was marked by decline.[25] Philip was killed in 249 and Auranitis was largely abandoned in the late 3rd century.[25] By the early 3rd century, Auranitis, Batanea and Trachonitis had been annexed to Arabia, bringing the entire Hauran under the jurisdiction of a single province.[1][26] This also coincided with the completion of the north-south Via Nova Traiana road connecting the Red Sea-port of Ayla with Bosra, the provincial capital, and an east-west road connecting the cities of the Adraa–Bosra–Salkhad line.[27] Commenting on this development, historian Henry Innes MacAdam writes:
For the first time since the Hellenistic age the Hawran in its entirety came under one administrative system. The road network and the settlements it linked were the framework upon which the economic and social infrastructure of the region was built. Secure towns and safe, well-maintained roads meant that internal and external commerce could flow freely. The wine and grain of the Hawran were marketed, we may assume, far and wide.[28]
After Rome's annexation, the rural villages of the Hauran exercised considerable self-rule.
Much of the settled population consisted of Arameans, Jews and a larger Arab population, consisting of Nabateans and Safaitic groups.[1] These groups continued to use Semitic languages,[29] mainly Aramaic and an early form of Arabic at the colloquial level,[28] though the Hellenization process was well underway and by the 4th century Greek supplanted the Hauran's native languages at the official level.[29] Though the particularly wealthy and army veterans engaged in Hellenistic activities, such as visiting theaters and bathhouses, much of the population held on to Arab and Aramaic traditions and worshiped their native gods.[29]
Byzantine era
Arab groups, including from
Ghassanid period
In the early 6th century, the Salihids were replaced by the
The Byzantine era in the Hauran was marked by the dual processes of rapid Arabization and the growth of Christianity.
Early Islamic era
The advent of Islam in Arabia and its expansion northward to Syria was countered by the Byzantines and their Arab Christian allies.
During the early Muslim period (7th-10th centuries), the Hauran formed part of the military district of Damascus, itself a part of the larger province of Bilad al-Sham.[35] The Hauran subdistrict roughly corresponded to the ancient Auranitis and its capital was Bosra, while the Bathaniyya subdistrict corresponded to the ancient Batanea and had Adhri'at as its capital.[36] Settlement within the Hauran continued and in some cases "thrived" in the early Islamic period, with "no perceptible change in activity or cultural patterns under the Umayyad caliphs", according to historian Moshe Hartal.[32] According to the 10th-century Muslim geographer Istakhri, the Hauran and Bathaniyya were "...two great districts of the Damascus Province. Their fields are rain-watered. The frontiers of these two districts extend down to... ...the Balqa district and Amman".[37]
The Abbasid period in Hauran was marked by numerous damaging raids from the Qarmatians of eastern Arabia in the 10th century.[1] After 939, the Hauran and Bathaniyya districts came under the direct rule of the Egyptian-based Ikhshidid dynasty, nominal governors of the Abbasids.[38] During this period, the large Arab tribe of Banu Uqayl, formerly allies of the Qarmatians, migrated to the Syrian steppe extending from the Hauran northward to Upper Mesopotamia.[38] After 945, the de jure Ikshidid ruler Abu al-Misk Kafur assigned the Uqaylid sheikhs (chieftains) Salih ibn Umayr and Zalim ibn Mawhub with keeping order in the Hauran districts.[38] This ended when the Fatimids conquered southern Syria in 970 and the Uqayl were consequently chased out of the Hauran by the Fatimid-allied tribes of Banu Fazara and Banu Murra.[38] The villages of Hawran and Bathaniyya were rehabilitated by Abu Mahmud Ibrahim, the nominal Fatimid governor of Damascus, in the early 980s, after the damage inflicted on the area by the Fazara and Murra.[39]
Middle Islamic era
The arrival of the
The last recorded appearance of the Crusaders in Hauran was in 1217. The
During the 12th and 13th centuries, the Hauran continued to be administratively divided into the Hauran and Bathaniyya districts of Damascus.[42] In general, both districts were well-populated and prosperous, benefiting particularly from grain production.[42] Though mostly Muslim, a significant portion of the inhabitants were Christians.[42] A contemporary Syrian geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi (died 1229) described the Hauran as "a large district full of villages and very fertile".[43]
Following its incorporation into the Mamluk Sultanate, the Hauran continued to be divided into the two districts of the Bosra-centered Hauran and the Adhri'at-centered Bathaniyya.[42] However, within the region were the two smaller administrative units of Salkhad, a fortress town typically held by a high-ranking Mamluk emir, and Zur’, which corresponded with the Lajat.[42] Under the Mamluks, the region's strategic importance stemmed from its position on the barid (postal route) between Gaza and Damascus and Bosra's role as a major marshaling point for the Hajj caravans going to Mecca.[42] The arrival of nomadic clans from the Banu Rabi'a tribe in the 14th century caused instability in the region, but they eventually became settled inhabitants.[42]
Ottoman era
Grain cultivation and Hajj caravan transit
The Hauran was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire following its conquest of Mamluk Syria in 1517. In the early Ottoman era, during the 16th and 17th centuries, there were numerous agrarian, primarily grain-growing villages in the Hauran plain and the western slopes of Jabal Hauran.[44] Most of the inhabitants paid taxes on wheat and barley.[44] The Hauran had long been a major grain-producing region and officially, its land belonged to the Ottoman state and its inhabitants were required to pay taxes and be conscripted into the army.[45] However, as state authority receded, the region effectively became autonomous.[45] An exception to this virtual autonomy came during the annual thirty- to sixty-day Hajj season, during which the state mobilized its forces to organize, protect and supply the annual Muslim pilgrim caravan to Mecca and Medina;[46] In the 18th century, the Hajj route was moved westward from Bosra to Muzayrib, which became the caravan's marshaling point in the Hauran.[42]
Instead of their direct involvement in the Hauran, the authorities entrusted its affairs to the Damascene This hinterland political system had its own internal checks and, of course, its strains, but it appears to have existed with a fair degree of equilibrium for a very long period of time. The low pressure of population on the land and the natural economies that existed between steppe and cultivated plain and between town and countryside appear to have contributed to this relatively stable situation.[47]
Increased Bedouin pressures and Druze influx
As state authority receded in the Hauran, Bedouin tribes from the
The Bedouin used the Hauran for access to water, to graze their camels and sheep and to stock up on supplies for the winter.[48][49] They traded their livestock and meats for grains from the plainsmen, and wares from other Syrian merchants.[48][49] The Hajj caravan was a major source of income for the Bedouin, who supplied the pilgrims with protection, logistical support, meat and transportation.[48] Bedouin depredations against the locals included the imposition of the khuwwa (tribute), ostensibly in return for protection.[42][51] The Bedouin also launched occasional raids and their flocks often grazed on the plainsmen's fields.[51]
In addition to the Bedouin, the 18th and 19th centuries also witnessed large migrations of
Persistent migrations of Druze from Mount Lebanon,
The Hauran plains declined economically and demographically during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Regional revival and centralization
During the 1850s, increased demand for grain in the Damascene and European markets led to a resurgence of grain cultivation in the Hauran.[60] This in turn brought about the mass resettlement of abandoned villages and the establishment of new settlements.[60] By the end of the decade, resettlement caused a scarcity of grazing lands for Bedouin livestock.[60]
The civil war of 1860, which spilled over into Damascus, where thousands of Christians were massacred, spurred the Ottomans to expand their centralization efforts in Syria.[58] Prior to 1860, the Hauran had been largely excluded from the Tanzimat centralization reforms.[58] In January 1861, the provincial governor, Fu'ad Pasha. attempted to integrate and reorganize the region. There followed other largely unsuccessful attempts by four successive Ottoman governors.[61] At the time, the Hauran's leadership consisted of the chiefs of the largely pacified clans of the plains, such as Al Miqdad and Al Hariri;[62] the more rebellious chiefs of the Druze clans of Jabal Hauran, such as Al Hamdan and Bani al-Atrash; and the chiefs of the Bedouin tribes of Rwala, Wuld Ali, Sirhan and Sardiyah, whose herds seasonally grazed the Hauran plains.[48]
The centralization efforts, backed by the Damascene aghawat, faced stiff resistance. They were opposed by both the Druze of Ismail al-Atrash and a coalition he formed, that included the Bedouin and many of the Haurani plainsmen.[63] This coalition was defeated in 1862 and the government came to terms with al-Atrash, entrusting him to collect taxes from the entire Hauran and to pay heavy fines in place of conscription.[64] Though this did not translate into the ultimate goal of integrating the Hauran,[64] and the Bedouin continued their rebellions in 1863–1864,[65] it still ended the region's virtual autonomy.[64]
Not until the appointment of
Rashid Pasha also pressed wealthier Syrians to take advantage of the 1858 Land Code and auctioned massive tracts of state land.[67] From 1869, many Damascene merchants and landowners and entrepreneurial Haurani farmers invested in these lands, which increased agricultural production.[60] With these investments came a reinforced military presence and a consequent reduction in Bedouin raids.[60] These combined factors caused the peasantry to “feel themselves more protected and risk further settlement", according to German archaeologist Gottlieb Schumacher.[60]
Into the 1870s and 1880s, the peasants of the Hauran, including the Druze, persisted in their agitation against the central government, European commercial interests and their own leaders.
French Mandatory period
At the end of World War I, the Hauran was captured and held for about two years by the
Under French Mandatory rule, the Hauran plains formed an eponymous district within the State of Damascus, while the Jabal Hauran formed the Jabal Druze State.[42] Its total population was 83,000 and included 110 villages.[42] Its principal population centers were the small towns of Daraa, Bosra, Izra and Nawa.[42] The district was subdivided into two qadaat (subdistricts), the southern one centered in Daraa and the northern one in Izra.[42]
Post-Syrian independence period
In the period following Syria's independence from France in 1946, the Hauran developed into "a busy and prosperous region", according to the historian Dominique Sourdel.[42] It remained a significant source of the country's grain and point of transit between Syria and Jordan.[42] It was often a place where Bedouin came to trade their wool and butter for other commodities.[42] However, following World War II,[59] the Hauran also lost much of its importance within Syria's national economy.[72] Though it continues to supply grain to Damascus, its role as the 'granary of Syria' was eclipsed by the country's northern and northeastern regions.[72] Grain production in the Hauran has been limited by dependence on rain and underground reservoirs. Moreover, the region's economic potential has been curtailed by the creation of international borders and the Arab–Israeli conflict, which have separated it from previously interdependent areas that are located today in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan.[72] In particular, the dual loss of Palestine as an alternative market to Damascus, and of Haifa as the Hauran's main economic outlet to the Mediterranean Sea, have also contributed to its economic decline.[72]
Unlike other rural regions in Syria, most land in the Hauran was not concentrated in the hands of large owners, being owned instead by small or medium-sized proprietors.[73] Thus, the region was not as affected by the Agrarian Reform Law passed in 1958 during the United Arab Republic period (1958–1961) and enforced by the Ba'ath Party government in 1963, which effected land redistribution and mostly targeted large landowners.[73] According to historian Hanna Batatu, parts of the Hauran, such as the area within and around Bosra, were practically self-governing during the presidency of Hafez al-Assad (1970–2000).[74] Politically, many of the clans that dominated local politics under the French continued to do so under the Ba'ath.[73] Economically and socially, however, the higher levels of leadership within the clans declined and lower-ranking members gradually became more influential.[75]
During the presidency of Bashar al-Assad (2000–present), the Hauran has remained an important agricultural region.[76] Its principal city, Daraa, is a major transit hub for commercial traffic between Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, as well as for smuggled goods between these countries.[76]
Syrian Civil War
The
Until 2018, rebel groups controlled large areas on either side of the main north-south Damascus-Daraa highway and the
Demography
Religion
The population of the Hauran region is religiously heterogeneous.
The
Clan structure and geographic distribution
The social structure of the Hauran plain is characterized by networks of large extended agrarian clans,[82][77] such as the Hariri, Zu'bi, Miqdad, Abu Zeid, Mahamid, Masalma and Jawabra.[77] The Zu'bi are the largest clan, inhabiting some sixteen villages in the Daraa and Izra districts.[85][76] They also have an extensive presence across the border in the Irbid Governorate, particularly in the cities of al-Ramtha and Irbid.[76] They form the predominant group in the city of Daraa and many of its surrounding villages.[note 2] Altogether, they number some 160,000 members in southern Syria and northern Jordan.[76]
The second largest clan are the Hariri, who generally inhabit eighteen villages, including many that are inhabited by the Zu'bi.[75][76] They are mostly concentrated just north of Daraa in Abtaa, Da'el, and al-Shaykh Maskin.[76] The Miqdad are predominant in many of the villages southwest of Daraa.[76][74][note 3] They are also the largest clan in the city of Bosra, but are predated there by the smaller al-Hamd clan.[74] The tribesmen of Nu'aym (or Na'imeh) are predominant in the towns of al-Shaykh Maskin, Jasim and Nawa in the Izra District, the villages of north-central al-Sanamayn District and in the Quneitra Governorate.[76] Smaller clans such as the Rifa'i are concentrated in Ataman and Nasib, while the Masalma, Mahamid and Abu Zeid are concentrated in Daraa city.[76]
Among the settled Bedouin are many Anizah tribesmen who made Daraa their home alongside the city's established agrarian clans.[76] In addition, members of the Shammar Arab tribe from northeastern Syria have migrated to the city, mainly for economic reasons.[76]
Like the agrarian Sunni clans of the plains, the Druze in Jabal Hauran were traditionally organized in a hierarchical clan order that saw a disparity in the distribution of social influence and prestige.[75] The Bani al-Atrash are the leading clan and predominate in some sixteen towns and villages, mostly in the southern parts of Jabal Hauran.[75][note 4] In the northern parts, the Bani 'Amer predominate in eleven villages,[75][note 5] while the other major clan in the northern Jabal Hauran was the Halabiya family.[75][note 6] Though the Bani al-Atrash and Bani ‘Amer were the more powerful clans in the governorate, members of the Banu Assaf of Attil, Slaim and Walghah and Bani Abu Ras of al-Ruha historically dominated the judiciary, while the Hajari, Hinnawi and Jarbu families historically provided the Druze community's religious leadership in Qanawat.[86][87]
Architecture
The Hauran has its own vernacular architectural tradition, known as the Hawrani style,[88] which is characterized by a number of distinctive factors.[10][89] One of these is the exclusive use of basaltic stone for building material.[10][89][90] Known for its hardness and black color, basalt is readily available throughout the region and until recent decades, was used for nearly all construction work done in the Hauran.[10][90] Due to a lack of timber, basalt took the usual place of wood and was used for doors, window seals and ceilings.[90] The reliance upon basalt in the Hauran "formed a truly lithic architecture“, according to the architectural anthropologist Fleming Aalund.[89]
The tensile strength of basalt enabled the "development of unusual building techniques", according to historian Warwick Ball.[10] Among these methods was the cutting of long, narrow beams from basalt to roof large areas spanning 10 meters (33 ft) or longer.[10][89] Because of the size restrictions of the beams, a distinctive system of traverse, semi-circular arches was devised to support the roof.[89][90] Corbels, typically no longer than 4 meters (13 ft), were used to expand the intervals between the arches and the walls.[90] This method "gave rise to the distinctive, cantilevered 'slab and lintel' architectural style that is peculiar to the black basalt areas of the Hauran", according to Ball.[10]
The fusion of
The architecture of the Byzantine era was influenced by the spread of Christianity and the consequent construction of churches and monasteries, the majority dating between the 4th century and early 6th century.[93] Surveys of the region indicated that a long period of uninterrupted building activity took place in the Hauran between the Nabatean period in the 1st century to the Umayyad period in the 7th century.[94] The region's pre-Islamic architectural tradition became the basis for later Islamic buildings in the Hauran, particularly in Bosra in the 12th–14th centuries.[90] However, the Muslim patrons of these works also introduced outside elements, mostly inspired by Damascene architecture, to give their projects their own stately character.[90]
Archaeology
The Hauran is distinguished by the large-scale preservation of its ancient structures.[10] This preservation extends to public and religious buildings, but also to simpler structures, such as village dwellings.[10] The durability of basalt is generally credited with their well-preserved state.[10][89] As a result, there are some 300 towns and villages in the Hauran containing ancient structures, almost as high a concentration as the Dead Cities of northwestern Syria.[10] In the words of 20th-century archaeologist Howard Crosby Butler,
There is no other country in the world where the architectural monuments of antiquity have been preserved in such large numbers, in such perfection, and in so many varieties as in North Central Syria [the Dead Cities] and in the Hauran. There are many places where the minor details of buildings, such as wall-paintings and mosaics, are in a better state of preservation; but there is no [other] region where numbers of towns of undoubted antiquity stand unburied, and still preserving their public and private buildings and their tombs in such a condition that, in many cases, they could be restored, with a small outlay, to their original state.[95]
When Classical-era sites were largely resettled in the late Ottoman era, many of the Hauran's ancient monuments were converted into houses.[96]
Surveys
The earliest surveys of the Hauran's archaeological sites were taken in the 19th century by the French archaeologist Melchior de Vogüé between 1865 and 1877, S. Merrill in 1881 and Gottlieb Schumacher in 1886 and 1888.[97] The most thorough and abundant documentation was recorded in surveys carried out by Butler and his team from Princeton University in 1903 and 1909 and then published periodically between 1909 and 1929.[97] In 1913, Butler also surveyed Umm al-Jimal, which contained numerous ruins, some as high as three storeys high.[97] The period in which these surveys were carried out coincided with the Hauran's mass resettlement.[97] This resulted in the partial damage of some sites due to their occupation as homes or as a source of masonry for new buildings, a process which continuously increased in later years.[97]
Renewed interest in the Hauran's ancient sites began in the 1970s.[97] Umm al-Jimal was surveyed between 1972 and 1981 by the American archaeologist Bert de Vries and reports from that expedition were published in 1998.[97] Surveys of the Hauran plain in Syria were carried out by French expeditionary teams led by François Villeneuve in 1985 and Jean-Marie Dentzer in 1986.[97] Early photographs of Hauran's archaeological sites, taken in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the German explorer and photographer Hermann Burchardt, are now held at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin.[98][note 7]
Notes
- ^ In the censuses of 1927, 1943 and 1956 Christians accounted for 9%–10% of the Jabal Druze State/as-Suwayda Governorate. In her survey in 1985, historian Robert Brenton Betts noted that this rate had likely declined and that many rural Christians had moved to as-Suwayda city, Damascus or outside of Syria.[83] Localities in the Hauran with Christian pluralities or majorities include the city of Izra and the villages of Jubayb, Namer, Bassir and Tubna in the Daraa Governorate and Aslihah, Anz, Dara, Hit, Khabab, Kharaba, Sama al-Bardan in the as-Suwayda Governorate.[78][84]
- ^ The localities of the Zu'bi clan include 'Ataman, Da'el, al-Jiza, Khirbet Ghazaleh, al-Musayfirah, Muzayrib, Nasib, al-Na'ima, Saida, al-Ta'iba, Tafas and al-Yadudah.[76]
- ^ The localities of the Miqdad clan include Ghasm, Ma'araba and Samaqiyat.[73][76]
- al-Suwayda and Salkhad, and the villages of al-Annat, Anz, Awas, Dhibin, al-Ghariyah, al-Huwayyah, Ira, Malah, al-Qurayya, Qaysama, Rasas, Umm al-Rumman and 'Urman.[86]
- ^ The localities inhabited by the Bani ‘Amer include Shahba, Amrah, Braykah, al-Buthainah, al-Hayyat, al-Hit, Mardak, al-Matunah, al-Suwaymrah and Ta'lah.[86]
- ^ The Halabiya predominate in the Wadi al-Liwa area,[75] including al-Hit, al-Sura and al-Tha'lah.[86]
- ^ Examples of photographs of the Hauran taken by Burchardt in 1895 include: the castle (citadel) of Salkhad; Melach Es-Sarrar (Malah); Dibese, 400 metres (1,300 ft) west of Suwayda; Qasr (fortress) al-Mushannaf; The ruins of Khirbet al-Bayda; The citadel: decorated lintel, Khirbat al-Bayda.
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- ^ Firro 1992, p. 66
- ^ a b c Schilcher 1981, p. 161.
- ^ a b Schilcher 1991, p. 168.
- ^ a b c d e f Lewis 2000, p. 39
- ^ Schilcher 1981, p. 162.
- ^ Schilcher 1981, p. 163.
- ^ Schilcher 1981, pp. 168–169.
- ^ a b c Schilcher 1981, p. 170.
- ^ Schilcher 1981, p. 171.
- ^ a b c Schilcher 1981, p. 173.
- ^ Schilcher 1981, p. 174.
- ^ Schilcher 1981, p. 175.
- ^ a b Lewis 2000, p. 40
- ISBN 965-223-863-5
- ^ Separation of Trans-Jordan from Palestine, Yitzhak Gil-Har, The Jerusalem Cathedra, ed. Lee Levine, Yad Yitzhak Ben Zvi and Wayne State University, Jerusalem, 1981, p.306
- ^ a b c d Schilcher 1981, p. 176.
- ^ a b c d Batatu 1999, p. 24
- ^ a b c Batatu 1999, p. 25
- ^ a b c d e f g h Batatu 1999, p. 26
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Heras 2014, p. 21.
- ^ a b c d Wege 2015, p. 36.
- ^ a b c Heras 2014, p. 22.
- ^ Heras 2014, pp. 22–23.
- ^ a b Wege 2015, p. 42.
- ^ a b c d Shaheen, Kareem (2018-07-31). "Syrian government forces seal victory in southern territories". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 November 2018.
- ^ a b "Middle East Report, No. 163: New Approach in Southern Syria" (PDF). International Crisis Group. 2015-09-02. p. 7, n. 33. Retrieved 2016-05-25.
- ^ Betts 1988, p. 60; p. 80, n. 38.
- ^ Betts 1988, p. 60, n. 11.
- ^ Batatu 1999, pp. 25–26.
- ^ a b c d Batatu 1999, p. 357
- ^ Batatu 1999, pp. 26–27.
- ^ a b Zerbini 2013, p. 52.
- ^ a b c d e f Aalund 1992, p. 35.
- ^ a b c d e f g Meinecke 1996, p. 33
- ^ Aalund 1992, p. 17.
- ^ a b c Ward-Perkins 1994, p. 339.
- ^ a b Aalund 1992, p. 18.
- ^ a b Ball 2016, p. 241.
- ^ Butler 1903, pp. 12–13
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