Philip the Arab

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"Emperor Philip" and "Roman emperor Philip" redirect here. For other people, see Emperor Philip (disambiguation).

Philip I
Ancient Roman religion (publicly)
Christianity (speculated)[2]

Philip the Arab (

Sassanid Empire
and returned to Rome to be confirmed by the Senate. During his reign, the city of Rome celebrated its millennium.

Philip was betrayed and killed at the Battle of Verona in September 249 following a rebellion led by his successor, Gaius Messius Quintus Decius. Philip's reign of five years was uncommonly stable in a turbulent third century.[a][b]

During the late 3rd century and into the 4th, it was held by some churchmen that Philip had been the first Christian emperor; he was described as such in

Eusebius of Caesarea's Historia Ecclesiastica (Ecclesiastical History).[5] Modern scholars are divided on the issue.

Early life

Possible bust of Otacilia Severa, wife of Philip.

Little is known about Philip's early life and political career. He was born in what is today

Historia Augusta and Epitome de Caesaribus) that Philip had a very humble origin or even that his father was a leader of brigands are not accepted by modern historians.[14] His birth date is not recorded by contemporary sources, but the 7th-century Chronicon Paschale records that he died at the age of 45.[15]

While the name of Philip's mother is unknown, he did have a brother,

equestrian and a member of the Praetorian Guard under Gordian III (238–244).[16] Philip was married to Marcia Otacilia Severa, daughter of a Roman governor. They had a son, Philip II, born in 237 or 238.[13]

The rise to the purple of the

Emesa is noted as a motivational factor in Philip's own ascent, due to geographic and ethnic similarity between himself and the Emesan emperors.[c][d]

Accession to the throne

Rock-face relief at Naqsh-e Rostam of Shapur I (on horseback) with Philip and Valerian kneeling in surrender to the Persian king.[e][f][g]

Philip's rise to prominence began through the intervention of his brother Priscus, who was an important official under the emperor Gordian III.[13] His big break came in 243, during Gordian III's campaign against Shapur I of Persia, when the Praetorian prefect Timesitheus died under unclear circumstances.[21] At the suggestion of his brother Priscus, Philip became the new Praetorian prefect, with the intention that the two brothers would control the young Emperor and rule the Roman world as unofficial regents.[13] Following a military defeat, Gordian III died in February 244 under circumstances that are still debated. While some claim that Philip conspired in his murder, other accounts (including one coming from the Persian point of view) state that Gordian died in battle.[21][6][22] Whatever the case, Philip assumed the purple robe following Gordian's death.

Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, and was aware that he had to return to

Mesopotamia, but he had to agree that Armenia lay within Persia's sphere of influence.[24] He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Persians of 500,000 denarii.[24][23] Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians (pax fundata cum Persis).[23]

AVG. / (of) citizens of ZEVGMA
.

Leading his army back up the

Parthicus Maximus and Parthicus Adiabenicus (the latter probably unofficially).[27]

Reign

In an attempt to shore up his regime, Philip put a great deal of effort in maintaining good relations with the Senate, and from the beginning of his reign, he reaffirmed the old Roman virtues and traditions.

Roman Imperial cult.[28]

The creation of the new city of Philippopolis, piled on top of the massive tribute owed to the Persians, as well as the necessary donativum to the army to secure its acceptance of his accession, made Philip desperately short of money.[25] To pay for it, he ruthlessly increased levels of taxation, while at the same time he ceased paying subsidies to the tribes north of the Danube that were vital for keeping the peace on the frontiers.[29] Both decisions would have significant impacts upon the empire and his reign.[30]

At the frontiers of the empire

In 245, Philip was forced to leave Rome as the stability established by Timesitheus was undone by a combination of his death, Gordian's defeat in the east and Philip's decision to cease paying the subsidies.

Arsacids of Armenia refused to acknowledge the authority of the Persian king Shapur I, and war with Persia flared up again by 245.[30]

Ludi Saeculares

Medallion commemorating Rome's millennium. Legend: concordia augustorum / saeculum novvum ("harmony of the emperors, new era").

Nevertheless, Philip was back in Rome by August 247, where he poured more money into the most momentous event of his reign – the

Varronian chronology was founded on 21 April 753 BC by Romulus
.

Commemorative coins, such as the one illustrated at left, were issued in large numbers and, according to contemporary accounts, the festivities were magnificent and included spectacular games,

Asinius Quadratus' History of a Thousand Years, specially prepared for the anniversary.[13] At the same time, Philip elevated his son to the rank of co-augustus.[13]

Downfall

Despite the festive atmosphere, there were continued problems in the provinces. In late 248, the legions of

Marcus Jotapianus led another uprising in response to the oppressive rule of Priscus and the excessive taxation of the Eastern provinces.[13][26] Two other usurpers, Marcus Silbannacus and Sponsianus, are reported to have started rebellions without much success.[13]

Aureus of Philip.

Overwhelmed by the number of invasions and usurpers, Philip offered to resign, but the Senate decided to throw its support behind the emperor, with a certain Gaius Messius Quintus Decius most vocal of all the senators.[38] Philip was so impressed by his support that he dispatched Decius to the region with a special command encompassing all of the Pannonian and Moesian provinces. This had a dual purpose of both quelling the rebellion of Pacatianus as well as dealing with the barbarian incursions.[38][32]

Although Decius managed to quell the revolt, discontent in the legions was growing.[30] Decius was proclaimed emperor by the Danubian armies in the spring of 249 and immediately marched on Rome.[38][13] Yet even before he had left the region, the situation for Philip had turned even more sour. Financial difficulties had forced him to debase the antoninianus, as rioting began to occur in Egypt, causing disruptions to Rome's wheat supply and further eroding Philip's support in the capital.[39]

Although Decius tried to come to terms with Philip,

Verona that summer. Decius easily won the battle and Philip was killed sometime in September 249,[40][39] either in the fighting or assassinated by his own soldiers who were eager to please the new ruler.[13] Philip's eleven-year-old son and heir may have been killed with his father and Priscus disappeared without a trace.[40]

Religious beliefs

Further information: Philip the Arab and Christianity

Some later traditions, first mentioned by the historian

Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical History, held that Philip was the first Christian Roman Emperor. According to Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. VI.34), Philip was a Christian, but was not allowed to enter Easter vigil services until he confessed his sins and was ordered to sit among the penitents, which he did willingly. Later versions located this event in Antioch.[13]

However, historians generally identify the later Emperor Constantine, baptized on his deathbed, as the first Christian emperor, and generally describe Philip's adherence to Christianity as dubious, because non-Christian writers do not mention the fact, and because throughout his reign, Philip to all appearances (coinage, etc.) continued to follow the state religion.[41] Critics ascribe Eusebius' claim as probably due to the tolerance Philip showed towards Christians.

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ "The five years of Philip's reign were a time of uncommon stability and repose in a century notorious for turbulence."[3]
  2. ^ "Philip's reign was brief – just five years – but it was a stable one in the unstable third century."[4]
  3. ^ "Severus deserves the ultimate credit for making possible the emergence of a figure such as Philip."[7]
  4. ^ "The spectacle of Arab and half-Arab emperors from neighboring Emesa must have left a deep impression on Marcus Julius Philippus."[17]
  5. ^ The two emperors who are named are shown in the way they are described: Philip the Arab is kneeling, asking for peace, and Valerian is physically taken prisoner by Šāpur. Consequently, the relief must be made after 260 AD. "[18]
  6. ^ "(...) while another figure, probably Philip the Arab, kneels, and the Sasanian king holds the ill-fated Emperor Valerian by his wrist."[19]
  7. ^ "He recorded these deeds for posterity in both words and images at Naqsh-i Rustam and on the Ka'aba-i Zardušt near the ancient Achaemenid capital of Persepolis, preserving for us a vivid image of two Roman emperors, one kneeling (probably Philip the Arab, also defeated by Shapur) and the second (Valerian), uncrowned and held captive at the wrist by a gloriously mounted Persian king."[20]

Citations

  1. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2
    .
  2. ISBN 978-1-4443-9254-8
    .
  3. ^ Bowersock 1983, p. 124.
  4. ^ Ball 2000, p. 468.
  5. ^ Shahîd 1984, pp. 65–93.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, p. 36.
  7. ^ a b c Bowersock 1983, p. 122.
  8. ^ Ball 2000, p. 418.
  9. ^ Shahîd 1984, p. 36.
  10. ^ "Philip | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
  11. ^ Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism (London: NLB, 1974), 87–88.
  12. ISBN 978-1-4738-8326-0
    . We cannot be certain that Philip was of Arab origin...
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Meckler 1999.
  14. ^ Bowersock 1983, pp. 123–124.
  15. ^ Chronicon Paschale, Olympiad 257.
  16. ^ Potter 2004, p. 232.
  17. ^ Shahîd 1984, p. 37.
  18. ^ Overlaet, Bruno (2017). "Šāpur I: Rovk Reliefs". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
  19. ISBN 978-1610693912
    .
  20. ISBN 978-0521521574
    .
  21. ^ a b Southern 2001, p. 70.
  22. ^ Potter 2004, p. 234.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g Southern 2001, p. 71.
  24. ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 237.
  25. ^ a b c Potter 2004, p. 238.
  26. ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 239.
  27. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8
    .
  28. ^ Bowersock 1983, pp. 121–122.
  29. ^ Potter 2004, pp. 238–239.
  30. ^ a b c d Potter 2004, p. 240.
  31. ^ Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, pp. 36–37.
  32. ^ a b c d e Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, p. 37.
  33. ^ Southern 2001, pp. 71–72.
  34. ^ Southern 2001, p. 72.
  35. ^ Martial; Coleman, Kathleen M., M. Valerii Martialis Liber Spectaculorum (2006), pg. lvi
  36. ^ Graham, T. (Writer and Director). (2000). The Fall [Television series episode]. In T. Graham (Producer), Rome: Power and Glory. Military Channel.
  37. ^ Southern 2001, p. 73.
  38. ^ a b c d Southern 2001, p. 74.
  39. ^ a b Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, p. 38.
  40. ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 241.
  41. ^ Cruse, C.F., translator. Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History, Hendrickson Publishers, 1998 (fourth printing, 2004), pp. 220–221.

General and cited sources

Primary sources

Secondary sources

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philip the Arab.
Regnal titles
Preceded by Roman emperor
244–249 		Succeeded by
Political offices
Preceded by Roman consul
245
with C. Maesius Titianus 		Succeeded by
Gaius Bruttius Praesens,
C. Allius Albinus
Preceded by
Gaius Bruttius Praesens,
C. Allius Albinus
Philippus II
 Succeeded by
L. Fulvius Gavius Numisius Aemilianus,
L. Naevius Aquilinus
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