Arameans
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Aramean kings |
Aramean cities |
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The Arameans, or Aramaeans (
At the beginning of the
The Arameans were never a single nation or group; rather, Aram was a region with local centers of power spread throughout the Levant. That makes it almost impossible to establish a coherent ethnic category of "Aramean" based on extra-linguistic identity markers such as material culture, lifestyle or religion.[1][2] During the eighth century BC, local Aramaean city states were gradually conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The policy of population displacement and relocation that was applied throughout Assyrian domains also affected Arameans, many of whom were resettled by Assyrian authorities. That caused a wider dispersion of Aramean communities throughout various regions of the Near East, and the range of Aramaic also widened. It gained significance and eventually became the common language of public life and administration, particularly during the periods of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BCE) and the later Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BCE).
A distinctive
History
Origins
The
Nomadic pastoralists have long played a prominent role in the history and economy of the
diminished in size until eventually, fully-nomadic pastoralist lifestyles came to dominate much of the region. The highly mobile, competitive tribesmen, with their sudden raids, continually threatened long-distance trade and interfered with the collection of taxes and tribute.The people who had long been the prominent population in what is now Syria (called the Land of the Amurru during their tenure) were the
The Arameans would appear to be one part of the larger generic Ahlamû group rather than synonymous with the Ahlamu.
Aramean states
The emergence of the Arameans occurred during the
The
Some of the major Aramean-speaking city states included
Later
Further north, the Arameans gained possession of post-Hittite
The Arameans, together with the
During the 11th and the 10th centuries BCE, the Arameans conquered
One of their earliest semi-independent kingdoms in northern Mesopotamia was Bît-Bahiâni (Tell Halaf).
Under Neo-Assyrian rule
The people of "Aram" were called "Arameans" in
Assyrian annals from the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire c. 1050 BCE and the rise of the
The Neo Assyrian Empire descended into a bitter series of brutal internal wars from 626 BCE that weakened it greatly. That allowed a coalition of many its former subject peoples (
As a result of migratory processes, various Aramean groups were settled throughout the
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Eber-Nari was then ruled by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BCE), which was initially headed by a short-lived Chaldean dynasty. The Aramean regions became a battleground between the Babylonians and the 26th Dynasty of Egypt, which had been installed by the Assyrians as vassals after they had defeated and ejected the previous Nubian-ruled 25th Dynasty. The Egyptians, having entered the region in a belated attempt to aid their former Assyrian masters, fought the Babylonians, initially with the help of remnants of the Assyrian army, in the region for decades before they were finally vanquished.
The Babylonians remained masters of the Aramean lands only until 539 BCE, when the Persian Achaemenid Empire overthrew Nabonidus, the Assyrian-born last king of Babylon, who had himself overthrown the Chaldean dynasty in 556 BCE.
Under Achaemenid and Hellenistic rule
The Arameans were later conquered by the
The conquests of
In the 3rd century BCE, various narratives related to the history of earlier Aramean states became accessible to wider audiences after the translation of the
Heritage under early Christian period and Arab conquest
The ancient Arameans lived in a close relationship with other distinct societies in the region. Throughout much of their history, they were heavily influenced by the
After the establishment of
During the
An
In the 10th century, the
Culture
The Iron Age culture of Syria is a topic of interest among scholars but is never referred to simply as "Aramean". Scholars have difficulty in identifying and isolating characteristic Aramean elements in the culture. Even in North Syria, where more substantial evidence is available, scholars still find it difficult to identify what is genuinely Aramean from what is borrowed from other cultures. Widespread scholarly opinion still maintains that since several ethnic groups, such as Luwians and Aramaeans, interacted in the region, one material culture with "mixed" elements resulted. The material culture appears to be so homogeneous that it "shows no clear distinctions between states dominated by Luwians or Aramaeans".[63]
Language
Arameans were mostly defined by their use of the West Semitic
As early as the 8th century BCE, Aramaic competed with the East Semitic
The late Old Aramaic language of the
Descendant dialects of the
The
.During the early modern period, the study of Aramaic languages (both ancient and modern) was initiated among western scholars, which led to the formation of Aramaic studies as a wider multidisciplinary field that also includes the study of cultural and historical heritage of Aramaic. Linguistic and historical aspects of Aramaic studies have been widened since the 19th century by archaeological excavations of ancient sites in the Near East.[76][77][78]
Religion
What is known of the religion of the Aramean groups is derived from excavated objects and temples and by Aramaic literary sources, as well as the names they had. Their religion did not feature any particular deity that could be called an Aramean god or goddess.
The Arameans who lived outside their homelands apparently followed the traditions of the countries in which they settled. The King of
Legacy
The legacy of ancient Arameans became of particular interest for scholars during the early modern period and resulted in the emergence of Aramaic studies as a distinctive field, dedicated to the study of the Aramaic language.[76] By the 19th century, the Aramean question was formulated, and several scholarly theses were proposed regarding the development of the language and the history of the Arameans.[80]
In modern times, Aramean identity is held mainly by a number of
See also
- Aramean kings
- Arameans in Israel
- Israelite-Aramean War
- Luwian-Aramean states
- Mhallami
- Paddan Aram
References
- ^ Doak 2020, p. 51:However, we must be clear at the outset: the Arameans were never, in fact, a single nation or group; rather, Aram was a region with local centers of power spread throughout contemporary Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon, at major cities such as Damascus and Hamath.
- ^ Gzella 2017, p. 23:It is nonetheless difficult if not impossible to establish a coherent ethnic category "Aramean" on the basis of extra-linguistic identity markers such as material culture, lifestyle (including cuisine), or religion and other cultural core traditions.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 25-54, 347–407.
- ^ Gzella 2015, p. 16-45, 53–103.
- ^ Younger 2016, p. 109-220, 549–654.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 409-489.
- ^ Gzella 2015, p. 104-211.
- ^ Younger 2016, p. 655-740.
- ^ Healey 2019, p. 443.
- ^ Healey 2019, p. 444.
- ^ Witakowski 1987, p. 76:Ever since the time of christianization those Arameans who embraced the new religion have been referred to as the Syrians, a name of Greek origin which they eventually accepted themselves.
- ^ a b Griffith 1997, p. 11–31.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 26-40.
- ^ Sader 2010, p. 277.
- ^ a b Berlejung 2014, p. 339.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 25–27.
- ^ Gzella 2015, p. 56.
- ^ Younger 2016, p. 35-108.
- ISBN 9781444332209.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 347.
- ^ Younger 2016, p. 549-654.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 249.
- ^ Younger 2016, p. 425-500.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 163.
- ^ Younger 2016, p. 307-372.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 119.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 319.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 135.
- ^ Lipiński 2000, p. 78.
- ^ a b Younger 2016.
- ^ Akkerman & Schwartz 2003, p. 367.
- ^ Billington 2005, p. 117–132.
- ^ "Aramaean (people)". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ Younger 2016, p. 501-548.
- ^ Sader 2014, p. 16.
- ^ "Akhlame". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Wunsch 2013, p. 247–260.
- ^ Saggs 1984, p. 290: "The destruction of the Assyrian empire did not wipe out its population. They were predominantly peasant farmers, and since Assyria contains some of the best wheat land in the Near East, descendants of the Assyrian peasants would, as opportunity permitted, build new villages over the old cities and carry on with agricultural life, remembering traditions of the former cities. After seven or eight centuries and various vicissitudes, these people became Christians."
- ^ Nissinen 2014, p. 273-296.
- ^ Streck 2014, p. 297-318.
- ^ Lemaire 2014, p. 319-328.
- ^ Niehr 2014b, p. 329-338.
- ^ Berlejung 2014, p. 339-365.
- ^ Botta 2014, p. 366-377.
- ^ Niehr 2014c, p. 378-390.
- ^ Millard 1983, p. 106-107.
- ^ Lipiński 2000.
- ^ Gzella 2015.
- ^ Frye 1992, p. 281–285.
- ^ Heinrichs 1993, p. 106-107.
- ^ Joosten 2010, p. 53–72.
- ^ Wevers 2001, p. 237-251.
- ^ Rogers 1921, p. 139.
- ^ a b Frenschkowski 2019, p. 468.
- ^ Healey 2014, p. 391-392.
- ^ Harrak 1992, p. 209–214.
- ^ Healey 2014, p. 395.
- ^ Minov 2020, p. 256-257.
- ^ Rubin 1998, p. 149-162.
- ^ Bcheiry 2010, p. 455-475.
- ^ Debié 2009, p. 110-111.
- ^ Weltecke 2006, p. 95-124.
- ^ Sader 2010, p. 286-288.
- ^ Gzella 2014, p. 71.
- ^ Gzella 2014, p. 72.
- ^ Brock 1992a, p. 16.
- ^ Brock 1992b, p. 226.
- ^ Aufrecht 2001, p. 149.
- ^ Quispel 2008, p. 80.
- ^ Healey 2019, p. 433–446.
- ^ Griffith 2002, p. 5–20.
- ^ Healey 2007, p. 115–127.
- ^ Healey 2014, p. 391–402.
- ^ Brock 2011, p. 96–97.
- ^ Gzella 2015, p. 317-326.
- ^ a b Burnett 2005, p. 421-436.
- ^ Niehr 2014, p. 1-9.
- ^ Gzella 2015, p. 3-16.
- ^ Doak 2020, p. 57.
- ^ Nöldeke 1871, p. 113-131.
- ^ Woźniak 2012, p. 73–83.
- ^ Woźniak 2015, p. 483–496.
- ^ Eti Weissblei (2017). "Arameans in the Middle East and Israel: Historical Background, Modern National Identity, and Government Policy" (PDF). Knesset.
- ^ Teule 2012, p. 47-56.
- ^ Sommer 2012, p. 157-170.
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- Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2007). "The Late Bronze Age/Iron Age Transition and the Origins of the Arameans". Ugarit at Seventy-Five. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. pp. 131–174. ISBN 9781575061436.
- Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2014). "War and Peace in the Origins of the Arameans". Krieg und Frieden im Alten Vorderasien. Münster: Ugarit Verlag. pp. 861–874.
- Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016). A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities. Atlanta: SBL Press. ISBN 9781628370843.
- Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2017). "Tiglath-Pileser I and the Initial Conflicts of the Assyrians with the Arameans". Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 195–228.
- Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2020). "Reflections on Hazael's Empire in Light of Recent Study in the Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts". Writing and Rewriting History in Ancient Israel and Near Eastern Cultures. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 79–102. ISBN 9783447113632.
- Zadok, Ran (2013). "The Onomastics of the Chaldean, Aramean, and Arabian Tribes in Babylonia during the First Millennium". Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 261–336. ISBN 9783447065443.
External links
- Media related to Arameans at Wikimedia Commons