Ben Nevis

Coordinates: 56°47′49″N 5°00′13″W / 56.79685°N 5.003508°W / 56.79685; -5.003508
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This article is about the mountain in Scotland. For other uses, see Ben Nevis (disambiguation).

Ben Nevis
Beinn Nibheis
Country high point
Coordinates56°47′49″N 5°00′13″W / 56.79685°N 5.003508°W / 56.79685; -5.003508
Geography
LocationLochaber, Highland, Scotland
Parent rangeGrampian Mountains
OS gridNN166712
Topo mapOS Landranger 41, Explorer 392[2]
Climbing
First ascent19 August 1771, by James Robertson[3]
Easiest routePony track and mountain path

Ben Nevis (

Fort William
.

The mountain is a popular destination, attracting an estimated 150,000 visitors a year,

alpine hut
.

The summit is 1,345 metres (4,413 ft)

felsenmeer). It features a number of monuments and the ruins of an observatory which was continuously staffed between 1883 and 1904. The meteorological data collected during this period is still important for understanding Scottish mountain weather. C. T. R. Wilson was inspired to invent the cloud chamber
after a period spent working at the observatory.

Ben Nevis is the namesake for a

packet ship, a mountain in Svalbard, a mountain in Hong Kong, and a cartoon character
.

Etymology

The name comes from the

Indo-European root *nebh-, which is connected with water and clouds, giving a meaning of "the moist one" or "the misty one".[8][10]

As with many

Scottish mountains, Ben Nevis is often referred to locally simply as "the Ben".[11][12]

Geography

Ben Nevis forms a massif with its neighbours to the northeast, Càrn Mòr Dearg, to which it is linked by the Càrn Mòr Dearg Arête, Aonach Beag and Aonach Mòr.[2] All four are Munros.[13]

Sgurr a' Mhàim

The western and southern flanks of Ben Nevis rise 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) in about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) above the River Nevis flowing down Glen Nevis – the longest and steepest hill slope in Britain[14] – with the result that the mountain presents an aspect of massive bulk on this side. To the north, by contrast, cliffs drop some 600 metres (2,000 ft) to Coire Leis (IPA: [ˈkʰɔɾʲə ˈleʃ]).[2]

In addition to the main 1,345-metre (4,413 ft) summit, Ben Nevis has two subsidiary "tops" listed in

Munro's Tables, both of which are called Càrn Dearg ("red hill").[15] The higher of these, at 1,221 metres (4,006 ft), is to the northwest, and is often mistaken for Ben Nevis itself in views from the Fort William area. The other Càrn Dearg (1,020 m (3,350 ft)) juts out into Glen Nevis on the mountain's southwestern side. A lower hill, Meall an t-Suidhe (711 metres (2,333 ft)), is further west, forming a saddle with Ben Nevis which contains a small loch, Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe. The tourist path from Glen Nevis skirts the side of this hill before ascending Ben Nevis's broad western flank.[2]

Summit

The summit of Ben Nevis comprises a large stony

trig point. The summit is the highest ground in any direction for 738.6 kilometres (458.9 mi) before the Scandinavian Mountains in western Norway are reached.[18]

The Peace Memorial, on the summit, is a cairn which was erected on

V J Day, 15 August 1945, by the Young Men's Class of Vicar Street Methodist Church, Dudley, led by Bert Bissell, "to the glory of God and in memory of the fallen of all races". They carried the materials, including a 2cwt memorial stone, to the summit. The inscription declares it to be "Britain's highest war memorial". A second plaque was added in 1965, brought by helicopter: "A tribute to the fallen of all nations from the youth associated with the World Federation of United Nations Associations and the International Student Movement of the United Nations." It is variously known as the Ben Nevis War Memorial, Ben Nevis Peace Memorial, or The Fort William-Dudley Memorial and Peace Cairn[19][20][21] A 2006 proposal to move the cairn to the foot of the Ben, was opposed by people in both Fort William and Dudley.[22]

The view from the UK's highest point is extensive. Under ideal conditions, it can extend to over 190 kilometres (120 mi), including such mountains as the Torridon Hills, Morven in Caithness, Lochnagar, Ben Lomond, Barra Head and to Knocklayd in County Antrim, Northern Ireland.[23][24]

In 2016, the height of Ben Nevis was officially remeasured to be 1344.527m by Ordnance Survey. The height of Ben Nevis will therefore be shown on new Ordnance Survey maps as 1,345 metres (4,411 ft) instead of the now obsolete value of 1,344 metres (4,409 ft).[1]

Climate

A temperature inversion around Càrn Dearg Buttress and Castle Corrie.

Ben Nevis has a highland

Köppen classification). Ben Nevis's elevation, maritime location and topography frequently lead to cool and cloudy weather conditions, which can pose a danger to ill-equipped walkers. According to the observations carried out at the summit observatory from 1883 to 1904, fog was present on the summit for almost 80% of the time between November and January, and 55% of the time in May and June.[25] The average winter temperature was around −5 °C (23 °F),[25] and the mean monthly temperature for the year was −0.5 °C (31.1 °F).[26] In an average year the summit sees 261 gales,[26] and receives 4,350 millimetres (171 in) of rainfall, compared to only 2,050 millimetres (81 in) in nearby Fort William,[27] 840 millimetres (33 in) in Inverness and 580 millimetres (23 in) in London. Rainfall on Ben Nevis is about twice as high in the winter as it is in the spring and summer. Snow can be found on the mountain for approximately 7 months out of the year.[28]

Climate data for Ben Nevis (1883-1904: during existence of summit observatory)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 9.1
(48.4) 		7.8
(46.0) 		7.8
(46.0) 		11.4
(52.5) 		13.3
(55.9) 		19.1
(66.4) 		17.8
(64.0) 		17.5
(63.5) 		17.0
(62.6) 		14.0
(57.2) 		11.1
(52.0) 		7.2
(45.0) 		19.1
(66.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −2.5
(27.5) 		−2.8
(27.0) 		−2.6
(27.3) 		−0.6
(30.9) 		2.6
(36.7) 		6.4
(43.5) 		7.1
(44.8) 		6.4
(43.5) 		5.4
(41.7) 		1.4
(34.5) 		0.1
(32.2) 		−1.9
(28.6) 		1.6
(34.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) −4.4
(24.0) 		−4.6
(23.8) 		−4.4
(24.0) 		−2.4
(27.6) 		0.6
(33.0) 		4.3
(39.7) 		5.1
(41.1) 		4.7
(40.4) 		3.3
(38.0) 		−0.3
(31.4) 		−1.7
(28.9) 		−3.8
(25.2) 		−0.3
(31.4)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −6.2
(20.8) 		−6.4
(20.5) 		−6.3
(20.7) 		−4.3
(24.3) 		−1.6
(29.1) 		2.1
(35.8) 		3.1
(37.6) 		2.9
(37.2) 		1.4
(34.5) 		−2.1
(28.2) 		−3.5
(25.7) 		−5.5
(22.1) 		−2.2
(28.0)
Record low °C (°F) −17.4
(0.7) 		−16.8
(1.8) 		−15.8
(3.6) 		−11.5
(11.3) 		−9.8
(14.4) 		−5.1
(22.8) 		−3.2
(26.2) 		−2.8
(27.0) 		−7.6
(18.3) 		−9.8
(14.4) 		−12.1
(10.2) 		−13.8
(7.2) 		−17.4
(0.7)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 469.8
(18.50) 		342.0
(13.46) 		378.9
(14.92) 		237.2
(9.34) 		204.4
(8.05) 		193.7
(7.63) 		269.8
(10.62) 		331.3
(13.04) 		391.6
(15.42) 		397.8
(15.66) 		394.8
(15.54) 		492.3
(19.38) 		4,103.8
(161.57)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 22.4 16.8 20.1 16.5 17.0 16.1 21.0 22.0 20.0 21.9 20.4 21.3 235.3
Mean monthly sunshine hours 22.4 42.3 54.7 80.4 116.3 127.0 84.8 58.1 62.3 41.8 27.8 18.0 735.9
Percentage possible sunshine 10 16 15 19 23 22 16 13 16 13 11 9 16
Source 1: CEDA Archive[29]
Source 2: Royal Society of Edinburgh (mean temp and sunshine 1884-1903)[30]

Geology

Ben Nevis is all that remains of a Devonian volcano that met a cataclysmic end in the Carboniferous period around 350 million years ago. Evidence near the summit shows light-coloured granite (which had cooled in subterranean chambers several kilometres beneath the surface) lies among dark basaltic lavas (that form only on the surface). The two lying side by side is evidence the huge volcano collapsed in on itself creating an explosion comparable to Thera (2nd millennium BC) or Krakatoa (1883).[31] The mountain is now all that remains of the imploded inner dome of the volcano.[32] Its form has been extensively shaped by

glaciation.[33]

Research has shown

basaltic lavas.[34][35]

History

An undated photograph of the Ben Nevis observatory (1883–1904) and 'hotel' (hostel). The hotel began as a spare-room-for-hire within the observatory and remained open until 1916.

The first recorded ascent of Ben Nevis was made on 17 August 1771[36] by James Robertson, an Edinburgh botanist, who was in the region to collect botanical specimens. Another early ascent was in 1774 by John Williams, who provided the first account of the mountain's geological structure.[37] John Keats climbed the mountain in 1818, comparing the ascent to "mounting ten St. Pauls without the convenience of a staircase".[38] The following year William MacGillivray, who was later to become a distinguished naturalist, reached the summit only to find "fragments of earthen and glass ware, chicken bones, corks, and bits of paper".[39] It was not until 1847 that Ben Nevis was confirmed by the Ordnance Survey as the highest mountain in Britain and Ireland, ahead of its rival Ben Macdui.[40]

A meteorological observatory on the summit was first proposed by the Scottish Meteorological Society (SMS) in the late-1870s, at a time when similar observatories were being built around the world to study the weather at high altitude.[25] In the summer of 1881, Clement Lindley Wragge climbed the mountain daily to make observations (earning him the nickname "Inclement Rag"), leading to the opening on 17 October 1883 of a permanent observatory run by the SMS.[41] The building was staffed full-time until 1904, when it was closed due to inadequate funding. The twenty years worth of readings still provide the most comprehensive set of data on mountain weather in Great Britain.[25]

In September 1894,

ionising radiation.[42][43]

trig point
.

The ruins of the observatory can still be seen on the summit.[44] An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for the benefit of those caught out by bad weather.[45]

The first path to the summit was built at the same time as the observatory and was designed to allow ponies to carry up supplies, with a maximum gradient of one in five.[25] The opening of the path and the observatory made the ascent of the mountain increasingly popular, all the more so after the arrival of the West Highland Railway in Fort William in 1894.[46] Around this time the first of several proposals was made for a rack railway to the summit, none of which came to fruition.[38]

In 1911, an enterprising

Model T as a publicity stunt. The ascent was captured on film and can be seen in the archives of the British Film Institute.[47] A statue of Alexander and the car was unveiled in Fort William in 2018.[48]

In 2000, the Ben Nevis Estate, comprising all of the south side of the mountain including the summit, was bought by the Scottish conservation charity the John Muir Trust.[49][50]

On 17 May 2006, a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust, which owns much of the mountain.[51][52] The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20 years earlier.[53]

Outdoor recreation

Hiking and climbing

An old postcard view showing the path up Ben Nevis

Ben Nevis is a popular hiking destination, with 150,000 people a year visiting the peak.[4]

The 1883 Pony Track to the summit (also known as the Ben Path, the Mountain Path or the Tourist Route) remains the simplest and most popular route of ascent. It begins at

youth hostel now allow access from the west side of Glen Nevis.[2][54] The path climbs steeply to the saddle by Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe (colloquially known as the 'Halfway Lochan') at 570 m, then ascends the remaining 700 metres (2,300 feet) up the stony west flank of Ben Nevis in a series of zig-zags.[2]

Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut with the Carn Dearg Buttress behind

A route popular with experienced

Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut (known as the CIC Hut), a private mountain hut 680 metres (2,230 ft) above sea level, owned by the Scottish Mountaineering Club[55] The route then ascends Càrn Mòr Dearg and continues along the Càrn Mòr Dearg Arête ("CMD Arête") before climbing steeply to the summit of Ben Nevis. This route involves a total of 1,500 metres (4,900 feet) of ascent and requires modest scrambling ability and a head for heights.[56] In common with other approaches on this side of the mountain, it has the advantage of giving an extensive view of the cliffs of the north face, which are hidden from the Pony Track.[54]

The north face of Ben Nevis is riven with buttresses, ridges, towers and pinnacles, and contains many classic scrambles and rock climbs. It is of major importance for British winter climbing, with many of its routes holding snow often until late April. It was one of the first places in Scotland to receive the attention of serious mountaineers; a partial ascent and, the following day, a complete descent of Tower Ridge in early September 1892 is the earliest documented climbing expedition on Ben Nevis.[57][58][59] (It was not climbed from bottom to top in entirety for another two years). The Scottish Mountaineering Club's Charles Inglis Clark hut was built below the north face in Coire Leis in 1929. Because of its remote location, it is said to be the only genuine alpine hut in Britain.[55]

Tower Ridge is the longest of the north face's four main

ridges, with around 600 metres (2,000 feet) of ascent. It is not technically demanding (its grade is Difficult), and most pitches can be tackled unroped by competent climbers, but it is committing and very exposed.[58] Castle Ridge (Moderate), the northernmost of the main ridges, is an easier scramble, while Observatory Ridge (Very Difficult),[60] the closest ridge to the summit, is "technically the hardest of the Nevis ridges in summer and winter".[61] Between the Tower and Observatory Ridges are the Tower and Gardyloo Gullies; the latter takes its name from the cry of "garde à l'eau" (French for "watch out for the water") formerly used in Scottish cities as a warning when householders threw their waste out of a tenement window into the street. The gully's top wall was the refuse pit for the summit observatory.[14]

The north face contains dozens of graded rock climbs along its entire length, with particular concentrations on the Càrn Dearg Buttress (below the Munro top of Càrn Dearg NW) and around the North-east Buttress and Observatory Ridge. Classic rock routes include Rubicon Wall on Observatory Buttress (Severe) – whose second ascent in 1937, when it was considered the hardest route on the mountain, is described by W. H. Murray in Mountaineering in Scotland[14] – and, on Càrn Dearg, Centurion and The Bullroar (both HVS), Torro (E2), and Titan's Wall (E3), these four described in the SMC's guide as among "the best climbs of their class in Scotland".[62]

An ice-climber exiting Number Five Gully (450m I). Tower Gap can be discerned in the background.

Many seminal lines were recorded before the

First World War by pioneering Scottish climbers like J. N. Collie, Willie Naismith, Harold Raeburn, and William and Jane Inglis Clark. Other classic routes were put up by G. Graham Macphee, Dr James H. B. Bell and others between the Wars; these include Bell's "Long Climb", at 1,400 ft (430 m) reputedly the longest sustained climb on the British mainland. In summer 1943 conscientious objector Brian Kellett made a phenomenal seventy-four repeat climbs and seventeen first ascents including fourteen solos,[61] returning in 1944 to add fifteen more new lines, eleven solo, including his eponymous HVS on Gardyloo buttress. Much more recently, an extreme and as yet ungraded climb on Echo Wall was completed by Dave MacLeod in 2008 after two years of preparation.[63]

The north face is also one of Scotland's foremost venues for winter mountaineering and ice climbing and holds snow until quite late in the year; in a good year, routes may remain in winter condition until mid-spring. Most of the possible rock routes are also suitable as winter climbs, including the four main ridges; Tower Ridge, for example, is grade IV on the

Scottish winter grade, having been upgraded in 2009 by the Scottish Mountaineering Club after requests by the local Mountain Rescue Team, there being numerous benightments and incidents every winter season.[64]

In February 1960 James R. Marshall and Robin Clark Smith recorded six major new ice routes in only eight days including Orion Direct (V,5 400m); this winter version of Bell's Long Climb was "the climax of a magnificent week's climbing by Smith and Marshall, and the highpoint of the step-cutting era".[62]

Hill running

Main article: Ben Nevis Race
1979 Ben Nevis Race

The history of

hill running on Ben Nevis dates back to 1895. William Swan, a barber from Fort William, made the first recorded timed ascent up the mountain on or around 27 September of that year, when he ran from the old post office in Fort William to the summit and back in 2 hours 41 minutes.[46]
The following years saw several improvements on Swan's record, but the first competitive race was held on 3 June 1898 under Scottish Amateur Athletic Association rules. Ten competitors ran the course, which started at the Lochiel Arms Hotel in Banavie and was thus longer than the route from Fort William; the winner was 21-year-old Hugh Kennedy, a gamekeeper at Tor Castle, who finished (coincidentally with Swan's original run) in 2 hours 41 minutes.[46]

Regular races were organised until 1903, when two events were held; these were the last for 24 years, perhaps due to the closure of the summit observatory the following year.

Achintee, at the foot of the Pony Track, and finished at the summit; It was won in just over an hour by Ewen MacKenzie, the observatory roadman.[46] The second race ran from new Fort William post office, and MacKenzie lowered the record to 2 hours 10 minutes, a record he held for 34 years.[46]

The Ben Nevis Race has been run in its current form since 1937. It now takes place on the first Saturday in September every year, with a maximum of 500 competitors taking part.

Claggan Park football ground on the outskirts of Fort William, and is 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) long with 1,340 metres (4,400 ft) of ascent.[66] Due to the seriousness of the mountain environment, entry is restricted to those who have completed three hill races, and runners must carry waterproofs, a hat, gloves and a whistle; anyone who has not reached the summit after two hours is turned back.[67] As of 2018, the record for the men's race has stood unbroken since 1984, when Kenny Stuart of Keswick Athletic Club won with a time of 1:25:34. The record for the women's race of 1:43:01 was set in 2018 by Victoria Wilkinson.[66]

Extreme sports

Ben Nevis is becoming popular with ski mountaineers and boarders. The Red Burn (Allt Coire na h-Urcaire) just to the North of the tourist path gives the easiest descent, but most if not all of the easier gullies on the North Face have been skied, as has the slope once adorned by the abseil poles into Coire Leis. No 4 gully is probably the most skied. Although Tower scoop makes it a no-fall zone, Tower Gully is becoming popular, especially in May and June when there is spring snow.[68]

A skier skinning towards the summit

In 2018 Jöttnar pro team member Tim Howell BASE jumped off Ben Nevis which was covered by BBC Scotland.[69]

On 6 May 2019, a team of highliners completed a crossing above the Gardyloo Gully, a new altitude record for the UK.[70] Also in May 2019, a team of 12, led by Dundee artist Douglas Roulston carried a 1.5-metre (4.9-foot) tall statue of the DC Thomson character Oor Wullie to the top of the mountain. The statue, which had been painted by Roulston with a 360-degree scene of the view from the summit was later sold at the Oor Wullie Big Bucket Trail charity auction to raise money for a number of Scottish children's charities.[71][72]

Ben Nevis is one of the three mountains climbed in the National Three Peaks Challenge, where participants aim to climb Ben Nevis, Scafell Pike and Snowdon, often within 24 hours and using motor transport between them. The total height climbed is 3,064 m (10,052 ft) and the distance walked 23 miles (37 km), with about 460 miles (740 km) of driving.[73] It has been estimated that some 30,000 people attempt the challenge each year, often as part of organised groups, and the impact on the local areas has been criticised.[74] Various records have been set for the challenge, including James Forrest's fastest self-supported completion in 16 days, 13 hours, 59 mins in 2021[75] and Imogen Boddy's fastest female completion on foot, with support, in 6 days 5 hours 43 mins, in 2024.[76] In 2022 the Nevis Landscape Trust introduced a registration system for charity events on Ben Nevis.[77][78]

Safety

See also: Mountains and hills of Scotland § Injuries and deaths, and Buachaille Etive Mòr § Injuries and deaths

Ben Nevis's popularity, climate and complex topography contribute to a high number of mountain rescue incidents. In 1999 there were 41 rescues and four fatalities on the mountain.[5] It has also been estimated that there are several deaths annually on Ben Nevis.[79]

Two avalanches occurred on Ben Nevis in 2009[80] and 2016,[81] causing the deaths of two people on each occasion. In another two avalanches that occurred in 1970[82] and 2019,[83] three people died on each occasion. A climber died in an avalanche on the north face of the mountain in 2022.[84]

corniced
, accurate navigation is critical.

Some incidents arise over difficulties in navigating to or from the summit,[85] especially in poor visibility. The problem stems from the fact that the summit plateau is roughly kidney-shaped and surrounded by cliffs on three sides; the danger is particularly accentuated when the main path is obscured by snow. Two precise compass bearings taken in succession are necessary to navigate from the summit cairn to the west flank, from where a descent can be made on the Pony Track in relative safety.[86]

In the late 1990s, Lochaber Mountain Rescue Team erected two posts on the summit plateau to assist walkers attempting the descent in foggy conditions. These posts were subsequently cut down by climbers, sparking controversy in mountaineering circles on the ethics of such additions.[85][87] Critics argued that cairns and posts are an unnecessary man-made intrusion into the natural landscape, which create a false sense of security and could lessen mountaineers' sense of responsibility for their own safety.[87]

In 2009, the Nevis Partnership moved and erected a number of 6-foot (1.8 m)-tall cairns on the summit plateau to aid navigation.[88] Subsequently, the John Muir Trust cleared a number of smaller informal cairns in 2016 which had been erected by visitors, which were seen as dangerous as they could confuse walkers using them for navigation.[89]

The

Ben Nevis Distillery is a single malt whisky distillery at the foot of the mountain, near Victoria Bridge to the north of Fort William. Founded in 1825 by John McDonald (known as "Long John"), it is one of the oldest licensed distilleries in Scotland,[90][91] and is a popular visitor attraction in Fort William. The water used to make the whisky comes from the Allt a' Mhuilinn, the stream that flows from Ben Nevis's northern corrie.[92] "Ben Nevis" 80/‒ organic ale is, by contrast, brewed in Bridge of Allan near Stirling.[93]

Ben Nevis was the name of a

packet ship which in 1854 carried the group of immigrants who were to become the Wends of Texas.[94] At least another eight vessels have carried the name since then.[95]

A mountain in Svalbard is also named Ben Nevis, after the Scottish peak. It is 922 metres (3,025 feet) high and is south of the head of Raudfjorden, Albert I Land, in the northwestern part of the island of Spitsbergen.[96] Hung Fa Chai, a 489-metre (1,604-foot) hill in Northeast New Territories of Hong Kong was given the name Ben Nevis by British surveyors in 1901.[97]

Wee Ben Nevis was a character appearing in The Beano comic for a few years from 1974, drawn by Vic Neill,[98] in a feature described by Auberon Waugh as having "strong undertones of Scottish Nationalism by its untrue suggestion that Scotsmen have superhuman strength despite their diminutive stature".[99]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ This is the distance to the mountain Melderskin in Norway.
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  2. ^ a b c d e f Ordnance Survey 2002
  3. ^ Mitchell, Ian R. (2004). Scotland's Mountains Before the Mountaineers. Luath Press Limited. p. 33.
  4. ^ a b Cox, David (26 March 2018). "The hidden history of the UK's highest peak". BBC.
  5. ^ a b The Nevis Working Party (2001). "Nevis Strategy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 5 November 2006.
  6. ^ "Isolation for Ben Nevis - Peakbagger.com". www.peakbagger.com.
  7. ^ MacBain, Alexander (1922). Place Names, Highlands and Islands of Scotland. Stirling: Eneas Mackay. p. 47.
  8. ^ a b Nicolaisen, W. F. H. (1959). "Notes on Scottish Place-Names (12) – Nevis". Scottish Studies. 3: 214–218.
  9. ^ Watson, William J. (1926). The History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland. Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons. p. 472.
  10. ISBN 0-7134-5234-X
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  11. ^ "Ben Nevis, or the 'Ben' as it is fondly known locally". Visit Fort William Ltd. Archived from the original on 18 October 2007. Retrieved 23 October 2007.
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  13. ^ "Mountain Search". Hill Bagging. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  14. ^ a b c Murray 1977
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  16. ^ "Ben Nevis". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 25 November 2006. (Subscription required for full access.)
  17. ^ Storer, Ralph (2015). 50 Shades of Hillwalking. United Kingdom: Luath Press Limited.
  18. ^ "Europe Peaks with 200 km of Isolation". Peakbagger. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  19. ^ "Ben Nevis Peace Memorial". Imperial War Museums. Retrieved 27 October 2024. Includes images and transcriptions of the plaques
  20. ^ "Ben Nevis War Memorial". canmore.org.uk. Canmore. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
  21. ^ Moranne-Brown, Zyllah. "Dudley Climbers celebrate Ben Nevis success". Black Country Radio. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
  22. ^ "War breaks out over peace cairn". The Oban Times: Lochaber News. 9 November 2006. Archived from the original on 16 December 2007. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
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  24. ^ "View from Ben Nevis looking South". Viewfinder Panoramas. Archived from the original on 29 September 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2006.
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  31. ^ "How volcanoes shaped Britain's landscape". BBC News. 5 July 2012.
  32. ^ "Geology of Ben Nevis". ben-nevis.com. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
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Bibliography

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