British Army during the Napoleonic Wars
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The British Army during the Napoleonic Wars experienced a time of rapid change. At the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, the army was a small, awkwardly administered force of barely 40,000 men.[1] By the end of the period, the numbers had vastly increased. At its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men.[2] The British infantry was "the only military force not to suffer a major reverse at the hands of Napoleonic France."[3]
Structure
Statement of the British Army, 1811 | |
Corps | Numbers |
---|---|
Royal Artillery | 12 Battalions |
Royal Artillery, Invalids | 1 Battalion |
Royal Artillery, Foreign | 1 Corps |
Royal Artillery Drivers | 1 Corps |
Royal Engineers | 1 Corps |
Life Guards | 2 Regiments |
Horse Guards | 1 Regiment |
Dragoon Guards | 7 Regiments |
Light Dragoons | 25 Regiments |
Royal Waggon Train | 7 Troops |
Foot Guards |
3 Regiments |
Infantry of the Line | 103 Regiments |
Royal Staff Corps | 1 Corps |
West India Regiments | 8 Regiments |
Royal African Corps | 1 Corps |
Royal York Rangers | 1 Regiment |
Royal West India Rangers | 1 Regiment |
Ceylon Regiments | 4 Regiments |
Garrison Battalions | 6 Battalions |
Royal Veteran Battalions | 12 Battalions |
German Legion | 15 Regiments |
German Legion Artillery | 1 Corps |
German Legion Engineers | 1 Corps |
Brunswick Oels Cavalry | 1 Corps |
Brunswick Oels Infantry | 1 Corps |
Other Foreign Regiments | 10 Regiments |
Colonial Fencibles | 5 Regiments |
Source: [4] |
In 1793, shortly before Britain became involved in the
Administered separately by the Board of Ordnance, the artillery had 40 companies in four battalions of Foot Artillery, 10 companies in the Invalid Battalion, two independent companies in India and a Company of Cadets. Two troops of the Royal Horse Artillery were being organised. The Corps of Royal Engineers and Invalid Corps of Royal Engineers were specialised bodies of officers. The Corps of Royal Military Artificers consisted of six companies. There were also two Independent Companies of Artificers.
There was no formal command structure, and a variety of government departments controlled army units depending on where they were stationed; troops in Ireland were controlled by the
Recruitment
During the later part of the 18th century Britain was divided into three recruiting areas—with England and Wales generally called
The British Army drew many of its raw recruits from the lowest classes of Britain. Since army life was known to be harsh, and the remuneration low, it attracted mainly those for whom civilian life was worse. The
In periods of long service, battalions generally operated under strength;[6] many discharges and deaths were due to wounds and disease.[6] During the Peninsular Campaign, the army lost almost 25,000 men from wounds and disease while fewer than 9,000 were killed directly in action;[8] however more than 30,000 were wounded in action, and many died in the days or weeks to follow.[9] Seriously under-strength battalions might be dissolved, merged with other remnants into "Provisional battalions" or temporarily drafted into other regiments.[6]
Officers ranged in background also. They were expected to be literate, but otherwise came from varied educational and social backgrounds. Although an officer was supposed also to be a "gentleman", this referred to an officer's character and honourable conduct rather than his social standing. The system of sale of commissions officially governed the selection and promotion of officers, but the system was considerably relaxed during the wars. One in twenty (5%) of the officers from regular battalions had been raised from the ranks, and less than 20% of first commissions were by purchase.[10] The Duke of York oversaw a reform of the sale of commissions, making it necessary for officers to serve two full years before either promotion or purchase to captain and six years before becoming a major,[11] improving the quality of the officers through the gained experience.
Only a small proportion of officers were from the nobility; in 1809, only 140 officers were peers or peers' sons.[10] A large proportion of officers came from the Militia,[10] and a small number had been gentlemen volunteers, who trained and fought as private soldiers but messed with the officers and remained as such until vacancies (without purchase) for commissions became available.[12]
Promotion was mainly by seniority; less than 20% of line promotions were
Civilian support network
Britain mobilized a vast civilian support network to support its 1 million soldiers. Historian Jenny Uglow (2015) explores a multitude of connections between the Army and its support network, as summarized by a review of her book by Christine Haynes:
- a whole host of other civilian, actors, including: army contractors, who provided massive quantities of tents, knapsacks, canteens, uniforms, shoes, muskets, gunpowder, ships, maps, fortifications, meat, and biscuit; bankers and speculators, who funded the supplies as well as subsidies to Britain's allies...revenue agents, who collected the wide variety of taxes imposed to finance the wars; farmers, whose fortunes rose and fell not just with the weather but with the war; elites, who amidst war maintained many of the same old routines and amusements; workers, when the context of war found opportunities for new jobs and higher wages but also grievances that led to strikes and riots; and the poor, who suffered immensely through much of this....[And women who] participated in the war not just as relations of combatants but as sutlers, prostitutes, laundresses, spinners, bandage-makers, and drawing-room news-followers.[13][14]
Infantry
There were three regiments of
There were eventually 104 regiments of the line. They were numbered and, from 1781, were given territorial designations, which roughly represented the area from which troops were drawn. This was not entirely rigid, and most regiments had a significant proportion of English, Irish, Scots and Welsh together, except for certain deliberately exclusive regiments.
A line infantry battalion was commanded by its regimental
Tactics
In the aftermath of the
The line formation was the most favoured, as it offered the maximum firepower, about 1000 to 1500 bullets per minute.[17] Though the manual laid down that lines were to be formed in three ranks, the lines were often formed only two ranks deep, especially in the Peninsula. While the French favoured column formation, the line formation enabled all muskets available to fire at the enemy. In contrast, only the few soldiers in the first rows of the column (about 60) were able to fire.[18] British infantry were far better trained in musketry than most armies on the continent (30 rounds per man in training for example, compared with only 10 in the Austrian Army) and their volleys were notably steady and effective.
The standard weapon of the British infantry was the "India Pattern" version of the Brown Bess musket. This had an effective range of 100 yards, but fire was often reserved until a charging enemy was within 50 yards. Although the French infantry (and, earlier, the Americans) frequently used buck and ball in their muskets, the British infantry used only standard ball ammunition.[19]
Riflemen and light infantry
A number of infantry regiments were newly formed as, or converted into, dedicated regular light infantry regiments. During the early war against the French, the British Army was bolstered by light infantry mercenaries from Germany and the Low Countries, but the British light infantry companies proved inadequate against the experienced and far more numerous French during the Flanders campaign, and in the Netherlands in 1799, and light infantry development became urgent.[20]
The first rifle-armed unit, the 5th Battalion of the 60th Regiment, was formed mainly from German
In 1803, Sir
Light infantry and rifle battalions were composed of eight companies. While the rifle-armed units adopted a
While line regiments fired in volleys, light infantry skirmishers fired at will, taking careful aim at targets.[22]
Uniform
The standard uniform for the majority of regiments throughout the period was the traditional red coat. Each line infantry regiment had its own facing colour that applied to its tunics. In addition from 1800 onwards, each regiment adopted a style of lace - square or bastion - worn across the chest, framing the buttons.[23][24] There was no standardised supply for uniforms, and it was generally left to the regimental colonel to contract for and obtain uniforms for his men, which allowed for some regimental variation.[25] Generally, this was in the form of specific regimental badges, or ornamentation for specialised flank companies, but occasionally major differences existed.[25] Highland regiments generally wore kilts and ostrich feather hats, although six of these regiments exchanged the kilt for regulation trousers or tartan trews in 1809.[6] Officers of Highland regiments wore a crimson silk sash worn from the left shoulder to the right hip. Regimental tartans were worn but they were all derived from the Black Watch tartan. White, yellow or red lines were added to distinguish between regiments. Trousers for the rank and file were generally of white cotton duck canvas for summer use, and grey woolen trousers were issued for winter wear, although considerable variation exists in the color of the woolen trousers. Originally, the white trousers were cut as overalls, designed to be worn to protect the expensive breeches and gaiters worn by the rank and file, although on campaign, they were often worn by themselves; a practice which was later permitted except on parade. Soldiers were also issued with grey greatcoats starting in 1803.[26] From the last years of the eighteenth century, the bicorne hat was replaced in 1800 by a cylindrical pattern infantry shako (known today as the "stovepipe"). In 1812, this was replaced by the false-fronted 1812 pattern infantry shako (known today as the "Belgic"). Despite modern literary claims to the contrary light infantry (including Rifle regiments) also converted to the 1812 pattern infantry shako from April 1813 as a letter by Colonel Sir Andrew Barnard of the 95th Rifles states:- " I have had caps enough in store to help the appearance of the 1st Batt. as it used to be but the 2nd and 3rd sport bang ups as the soldiers of the 52nd who were the first in the Division that put them on have christened them.." All regiments were expected to be compliant with regulations by April 1814. Grenadiers and Foot Guards continued to be issued bearskins, but these were not worn while on campaign.
It was in 1802, during this period of uniform transition, that enlisted soldier rank insignia were first designated by chevrons. Their introduction allowed the rapid differentiation of sergeants and corporals from private soldiers. Colour sergeant and lance corporal ranks soon evolved as well.[27]
Officers were responsible for providing (and paying for) their own uniforms. Consequently, variable styles and decorations were present, according to the officer's private means.
Until the issue of the 1812 pattern infantry cap (or “Belgic”) in 1812, company officers wore bicorne hats; afterwards, they usually wore the same headgear as their men while on campaign, their status as officers denoted with braided cords. Generals, field officers and staff officers generally wore bicorne hats.
Officers were generally armed with the poorly-regarded
Colours
Most British battalions carried flags known as
The colours were carried into battle for identification, and as a rallying point, in the care of sergeants or ensigns. Attending the colours in battle was dangerous, since they were a target for enemy artillery and assault. Due to the symbolic significance of the colours, their loss was a grave issue, and extreme measures were often taken to prevent such dishonour occurring.[32] The skirmishing and forward positions maintained by light infantry frequently made the bearing of colours inconvenient. For this reason, the newly raised 95th Rifles received no colours, but the converted line regiments retained their existing colours. Some light infantry regiments opted not to carry them in the Peninsula.[33]
Medals
The widespread use of campaign medals began during the Napoleonic Wars. The Army Gold Medal ("Peninsular Medal"), in round and cross varieties, was issue to battalion commanders and higher ranks for battle service in the Peninsular War. The cross also saw the first use of Medal bars. Following the battle a Waterloo Medal was issued to all soldiers who participated in that engagement. Decades later the Military General Service Medal was retrospectively awarded, to surviving veterans of all ranks who applied, for service in campaigns during the 1793–1814 period.
Cavalry
At the start of the French Revolutionary Wars, the "heavy" cavalry were equivalent to
The light cavalry units consisted of fourteen regiments of Light Dragoons, which had been formed during the eighteenth century to carry out the roles of scouting and patrolling. In many cases, the regiments were originally troops attached to heavy regiments, before being separated from them and expanded. Some regiments were raised specifically to serve overseas; the 19th and 25th (later the 22nd) Light Dragoons to serve in India, and the 20th to serve in Jamaica. The light dragoons wore short blue braided jackets and the leather
From 1812, the uniforms of most of the remaining British cavalry changed, following French styles. The heavy cavalry (excepting the Household Cavalry who adopted a helmet with a prominent woolen comb and the Scots Greys, who retained their bearskins) adopted a helmet with a horsetail crest like those of French dragoons or cuirassiers, while the light dragoons adopted a jacket and bell-top shako similar to those of French chasseurs a cheval. The Duke of Wellington objected to these changes, as it became difficult to distinguish French and British cavalry at night or at a distance, but without success.
For most of the wars, British cavalry formed a lower proportion of armies in the field than most other European armies, mainly because it was more difficult to transport horses by ship than foot soldiers, and the horses usually required several weeks to recuperate on landing. British cavalry were also more useful within Britain and Ireland for patrolling the country as a deterrent to unrest. Some exceptions were Wellington's Vitoria campaign in 1813, when he required large numbers of cavalry to ensure a decisive result to the campaign, and the Waterloo campaign, where the cavalry needed to be transported only across the English Channel.
The British cavalry was usually organised into brigades, but no higher formations. (The cavalry division referred to all cavalry units of an army.) Brigades were attached to infantry divisions or columns, or sometimes acted directly under the command of the cavalry commander of an army.
British cavalry were excellently mounted and were reckoned superior to French cavalry if squadrons clashed, but because brigades and even regiments were rarely exercised in battlefield manoeuvres and tactics, they were inferior in larger numbers.[35] Wellington in particular was highly unimpressed by the quality and intelligence of many of his cavalry officers. He said:
I considered our (British) cavalry so inferior to the French from the want of order, that although I considered one squadron a match for two French, I didn't like to see four British opposed to four French: and as the numbers increased and order, of course, became more necessary I was the more unwilling to risk our men without having a superiority in numbers.[36]
Foreign units in British service
During the wars, many émigré units were formed from refugees from countries occupied by France, and from among deserters and prisoners of war from the French armies.
The oldest of these was the 60th Regiment, which had originally been raised in 1756 for service in America, and which had long been composed primarily of Germans. During the Napoleonic Wars, most of the seven battalions of this regiment served as garrison troops in territories such as the West Indies, but the 5th battalion was raised in 1797 from two other emigre units (Hompesch's Mounted Riflemen and Lowenstein's Chasseurs) as a specialised corps of skirmishers armed with the Baker Rifle, and the 7th battalion was specifically formed to serve in North America during the War of 1812.
The largest émigré corps was the
The Royal Corsican Rangers were formed in 1798 from among Corsican exiles on Menorca. After being disbanded during the Peace of Amiens, the regiment was reformed in 1803 from Corsicans and Italians (Italian was the main language spoken among Corsicans). It served in the Mediterranean, and was not disbanded until 1817.
The
The Dutch Emigrant Artillery was formed in Hanover in 1795 from remnants of Franco-Dutch units. It consisted of three companies and between 1796 and 1803 served in the West Indies to man guns in forts there. In 1803 it was amalgamated into the Royal Foreign Artillery.
The Chasseurs Britanniques were originally formed from French Royalist emigres in 1801, and served throughout the wars.[38] The unit served chiefly in the Mediterranean until 1811, when it participated in the later stages of the Peninsular War. It had a good record in battle but later became notorious for desertion, and was not even allowed to perform outpost duty, for fears that the pickets would abscond.
In 1812, the Independent Companies of Foreigners were formed from among French prisoners of war for service in North America. The companies became notorious for lack of discipline and atrocities in Chesapeake Bay, and were disbanded.
The nominally Swiss
The British Army also raised units in territories that were allied to Britain or that British troops occupied. These included the
During early part of the Peninsular War, some Portuguese soldiers were organised into a Corps known as the Loyal Lusitanian Legion, which eventually was absorbed by the Portuguese Army.
Canadian units
Four regiments of Fencibles were raised before 1803 in Canada or the Maritime provinces (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) as regulars for service in North America. (The New Brunswick Fencibles volunteered for general service and became the 104th Regiment of Foot, but did not serve outside the continent.) A fifth fencible regiment (the Glengarry Light Infantry) was raised as war with the United States of America appeared inevitable. There were also ad-hoc units, such as the Michigan Fencibles and the Mississippi Volunteer Artillery which served in a specific theatre, such as the west around Prairie du Chien and Credit Island.
When the War of 1812 broke out, six (later eight) battalions of Select Embodied Militia were formed for full-time service from among the militia or from volunteers. One of these units, the Canadian Voltigeurs, was treated as a regular unit for most purposes. There were also several volunteer company-sized units of dragoons or rangers, and detachments of artillery. A militia company composed entirely of Negroes later became a full-time pioneer unit.
After the end of the War in 1815, almost all the fencible and volunteer units were disbanded. Many of the troops and British soldiers discharged in Canada received land grants and became settlers.
Daily life
While on campaign, it was customary for men to sleep in the open, using their blankets or greatcoats for warmth.[43] Simple blanket tents could be made from two blankets, supported by firelocks, a ramrod, and fixed to the ground with bayonets.[43] At other times, huts could be made using branches covered with ferns, straw or blankets.[44] While tents were frequently used by officers, they were not issued to the men until 1813.[45]
Soldiers were allowed to marry, but wives were expected to submit to army rules and discipline, as well contribute to regimental affairs by performing washing, cooking and other duties. Six women per company were officially "on the strength" and could accompany their husbands on active service, receiving rations and places on troop transports. If there was competition for these places, selections would be made by ballot.[46] Many soldiers also found wives or companions from amongst the local populations, whose presence in the army train was generally tolerated, despite being beyond the quota.[47] However, at the conclusion of the Peninsular War only those wives officially on the strength were allowed to return to Britain with their husbands, resulting in a large number of women and children abandoned in France, with no provisions or means of returning to their homes.[citation needed]
Officers also needed permission from their commanding officers to marry, and for their wives to accompany them, but they were not subject to quota, although restrictions might be made due to the officer's age or seniority.[48]
Campaigns
The British Army fought on a number of fronts during the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic wars, with a brief pause from 1802 to 1803 (and from 1814 to 1815, after Bonaparte abdicated for the first time).
French Revolutionary Wars
Mysore, 1789–1792
The first major engagement involving the British army during the Revolutionary period was the Third Anglo-Mysore War, between Kingdom of Mysore supported by France and led by Tipu Sultan, and the British East India Company supported by its local allies. British regular infantry and artillery regiments formed the core of the East India Company army serving under the command of British general Lord Cornwallis. After some initial setbacks, Cornwallis was ultimately victorious capturing the Mysorean capital city of Seringapatam and compelling Mysore to make peace on terms favourable to Britain.
Toulon
In 1793, French Royalists in
British troops and ships seized the island of Corsica, turning it temporarily into the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom. Relations between the British and Corsicans soured, and the island was evacuated after Spain declared war on Britain, making it impossible for the Royal Navy to maintain communications with the island.
Flanders, 1793–1796
In this theatre a British army under the command of the
The Allies then established a new front in southern Holland and Germany, but with poor co-ordination and failing supplies were forced to continue their retreat through the arduous winter of 1794/5. By spring 1795 the British force had left Dutch territory entirely, and reached the port of Bremen where they were evacuated. The campaign exposed many shortcomings in the British army, especially in discipline and logistics, which had developed in the ten years of peacetime neglect since the American War of Independence.
West Indies, 1793–1798
The other major British effort in the early French Revolutionary Wars was mounted against the French possessions in the West Indies. This was mainly for trade considerations; not only were the French West Indian islands valuable due to their plantation-based economy, but they acted as bases for French privateers who preyed on British merchant ships.
The resulting five-year campaign crippled the whole British Army through disease, especially
Eight thousand reinforcements under Lieutenant General Sir Ralph Abercromby arrived in 1796, and secured many French territories, and those of Spain and the Netherlands (which was now titled the Batavian Republic and allied to France). However, the decimated British troops evacuated Haiti, and Guadeloupe was never recaptured, becoming a major privateering base and black market emporium.
Muizenberg and Ceylon 1795
In 1795 a combined British army and Royal Navy force under the command of Major-General
Ireland 1798
A rebellion inspired by a secret society, the Society of United Irishmen, broke out in Ireland. The British Army in Ireland consisted partly of regular troops but mostly of Protestant militia and Irish Yeomanry units. The rebellion was marked by atrocities on both sides.
After the rebellion had already failed, a French expedition under General Humbert landed in the west of Ireland. After inflicting an embarrassing defeat on a British militia force at the Battle of Castlebar, Humbert's outnumbered army was surrounded and forced to surrender.
Mysore, 1798–1799
This was the last war fought between the East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore. British regular regiments again formed part of the East India Company army, this time under the command of British general George Harris. The British forces defeated Mysore for the final time, capturing Seringapatam and killing Tipu Sultan.
Holland 1799
As part of the War of the Second Coalition, a joint Anglo-Russian force invaded the Netherlands. Although the British troops captured the Dutch fleet, but after the defeat at Castricum, the expedition was a failure and the British commander in chief, the Duke of York negotiated a capitulation which allowed the British to sail away unmolested.
Egypt
In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte had invaded Egypt, as a stepping stone to India, which was the source of much of Britain's trade and wealth. He was stranded there when Vice Admiral Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile.
In alliance with the Ottoman Empire, Britain mounted an expedition to expel the French from Egypt. After careful preparations and rehearsals in Turkish anchorages, a British force under Sir Ralph Abercromby made a successful opposed landing at the Battle of Abukir (1801). Abercromby was mortally wounded at the Battle of Alexandria, where the British troops demonstrated the effectiveness of their musketry, improved discipline and growing experience. The French capitulated and were evacuated from Egypt in British ships.
Peace of Amiens
After Britain's allies all signed treaties with France, Britain also signed the Treaty of Amiens, under which Britain restored many captured territories to France and its allies. The "peace" proved merely to be an interlude, with plotting and preparations for a renewal of war continuing on both sides.
Napoleonic Wars
Maratha, 1803–1805
Shortly after the resumption of war on the continent, the East India Company once again became involved in war with an Indian power, this time with the Maratha Empire, supported by France. British regiments of infantry, artillery and cavalry once again formed the core of the Company army, this time under the command of British generals Gerrard Lake and Arthur Wellesley. Maratha forces were defeated decisively at Assaye and Delhi and further losses eventually compelled them to make peace.
West Indies, 1804–1810
When war resumed, Britain once again attacked the French possessions in the West Indies. The French armies which had been sent to recover Haiti in 1803 had, like the British armies earlier, been ravaged by disease, so only isolated garrisons opposed the British forces. In 1805, as part of the manoeuvres which ultimately led to the Battle of Trafalgar, a French fleet carrying 6,500 troops briefly captured Dominica and other islands but subsequently withdrew.
In 1808, once the British were allied to Portugal and Spain, they were able to concentrate their forces and capture the French possessions one by one;
Hanover 1805
In 1805 news arrived in
Naples 1805
One of Britain's allies was Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, whose kingdom was important to British interests in the Mediterranean. In 1805 British forces under the command of General James Craig were part of an Anglo-Russian force intended to secure the Kingdom of Naples. However, after a brief occupation the allied position became untenable with the news of the disastrous Austrian defeat at the Battle of Ulm.
Sicily and the Mediterranean
In 1806, French troops invaded southern Italy, and British troops again went to aid the defenders. A British army under the command of General John Stuart won a lopsided victory at the Battle of Maida. For the rest of the war, British troops defended Sicily, forcing Ferdinand to make liberal reforms. An allied force consisting mainly of Corsicans, Maltese and Sicilians was driven from Capri in 1808. The next year, British troops occupied several Greek and Dalmatian islands, although the French garrison on Corfu was too strong to be attacked. The British retained their Greek islands until the end of the wars.
South Africa and the Plate
The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope was a vital port of call on the long sea voyage to India. An expedition was sent to capture it in 1805. (It had first been captured in 1796, but was returned under the Treaty of Amiens.) British troops under Lieutenant General Sir David Baird won the Battle of Blaauwberg in January 1806, forcing the surrender of the colony.
The naval commander of the expedition, Admiral
General Auchmuty mounted a second invasion of the region in 1807, capturing Montevideo. Lieutenant General Sir John Whitelocke was sent from Britain to take command in the region, arriving at the same time as Major General Robert Craufurd, whose destination had been changed several times by the government, and whose troops had been aboard ship for several months.[53]
Whitelock launched a bungled attack on Buenos Aires on 5 July 1807, in which the British troops suffered heavy casualties and were trapped in the city. Finally he capitulated, and the troops returned ignominiously to Britain. Whitelock was court-martialled and cashiered.
Denmark
In August 1807, an expedition was mounted to Copenhagen, to seize the Danish fleet to prevent it falling into French hands. The expedition was led by General Lord Cathcart. A British land force under the command of Arthur Wellesley routed a Danish militia force. After the city was bombarded for several days, the Danes surrendered their fleet.
Alexandria
In 1807 an army and navy expedition under the command of General Alexander Mackenzie Fraser was dispatched with the objective of capturing the Egyptian city of Alexandria to secure a base of operations to disrupt the Ottoman Empire. The people of Alexandria, being disaffected towards Muhammad Ali of Egypt, opened the gates of the city to the British forces, allowing for one of the easiest conquests of a city by the British forces during the Napoleonic Wars. However, due to lack of supplies, and inconclusive operations against the Egyptian forces, the Expedition was forced to re-embark and leave Alexandria.
Walcheren
In 1809, Austria declared war on France. To provide a diversion, a British force consisting mainly of the troops recently evacuated from
Indian Ocean and East Indies
To clear nests of French privateers and raiders, the Army captured the French dependencies in the Indian Ocean in the Mauritius campaign of 1809–1811. With substantial contingents from the East India Company, British troops also captured the Dutch colonies in the Far East in 1810 with the successful Invasion of the Spice Islands and 1811, with the fall of Java.
Peninsular War
Those veterans had won nineteen pitched battles and innumerable combats; had made or sustained ten sieges and taken four great fortresses; had twice expelled the French from Portugal, once from Spain; had penetrated France, and killed wounded or captured two hundred thousand enemies — leaving of their own number forty thousand dead, whose bones whiten the plains and mountains of the Peninsula.
Sir William Napier on the Peninsular War.[54]
In 1808, after Bonaparte overthrew the monarchs of Spain and Portugal, an expedition under Sir Arthur Wellesley which was originally intended to attack the Spanish possessions in
In October, Moore led the army into Spain, reaching as far as Salamanca. In December, they were reinforced by 10,000 troops from England under Sir David Baird.[56] Moore's army now totalled 36,000, but his advance was cut short by the news that Napoleon had defeated the Spanish and captured Madrid, and was approaching with an army of 200,000. Moore retreated to Corunna over mountain roads and through bitter winter weather.[56] French cavalry pursued the British Army the length of the journey, and a Reserve Division was set to provide rearguard protection for the British troops, which were engaged in much fighting.[56] About 4,000 troops separated from the main force and marched to Vigo.[57] The French caught up with the main army at Corunna, and in the ensuing Battle of Corunna in January 1809, Moore was killed; the remnant of the army was evacuated to England.[56]
In 1809, Wellesley returned to Portugal with fresh forces, and defeated the French at the
The next year, when a large French army under Marshal
In January 1812, Wellesley captured
Soon after the assault on Badajoz, Wellesley (now raised to the peerage as Marquess Wellington) marched into northern Spain. For a month the British and French armies marched and counter-marched against each other around Salamanca. On 22 July, Wellington took advantage of a momentary French dispersion and gained a complete victory at the Battle of Salamanca.[58] After occupying Madrid, Wellington unsuccessfully besieged Burgos. In October, the army retreated to Portugal. This "Winter Retreat" bore similarities to the earlier retreat to Corunna, as it suffered from poor supplies, bitter weather and rearguard action.[59]
In spring 1813, Wellington resumed the offensive, leaving Portugal and marching northwards through Spain, dropping the lines of communication to Lisbon and establishing new ones to the Spanish ports on the
On 31 March 1814, allied armies entered Paris, and Napoleon abdicated on 6 April.[61] The news was slow to reach Wellington, who fought the indecisive Battle of Toulouse on 10 April.[62]
Once peace agreements had finally been settled, the army left the Peninsula. The infantry marched to Bordeaux for transportation to their new postings (several to North America). Many Spanish wives and girlfriends were left behind, to general distress. The cavalry rode through France to Boulogne and Calais.[63]
Holland 1814
In 1814, the British government had sent a small force to Holland under Sir Thomas Graham to capture the fortress of Bergen op Zoom. The attack, on 8 March 1814, failed and the British were repelled, with heavy losses.[64]
War in North America
Although the United States of America was not allied to France, war broke out between America and Britain ostensibly over issues of trade embargoes and impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, both of which were directly or indirectly linked to the Napoleonic wars (the latter of which was not even brought up during the Treaty of Ghent). For the first two years of the war, a small number of British regular units formed the hard core around which the Canadian militia rallied. Multiple US invasions north of the border were repulsed; such an example can be seen at the Battle of Crysler's Farm in which battalions of 89th and 49th Regiments attacked and routed a significantly larger American force making its way toward Montreal.
In 1814, larger numbers of British regulars became available after the abdication of Napoleon. However, long and inadequate supply lines constrained the British war effort. In Chesapeake Bay, a British force captured and burned Washington, but was repulsed at Baltimore. Neither side could strike a decisive blow which would compel the other to cede favourable terms, and the Treaty of Ghent was signed. Before news of it could reach the armies on the other side of the Atlantic, a British force under Wellington's brother-in-law Sir Edward Pakenham was defeated foolhardily attacking heavily fortified positions at the Battle of New Orleans.
Waterloo Campaign 1815
It appeared that war was finally over, and arrangements for the peace were discussed at the
Basing themselves in Belgium, the Allies formed two armies, with the Duke of Wellington commanding the Anglo-Allies, and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher commanding the Prussians. Napoleon marched swiftly through France to meet them, and split his army to launch a two-pronged attack. On 16 June 1815, Napoleon himself led men against Blücher at Ligny, while Marshall Ney commanded an attack against Wellington's forward army at the Battle of Quatre Bras. Wellington successfully held Quatre Bras, but the Prussians were not so successful at Ligny, and were forced to retreat to Wavre. Hearing of Blücher's defeat on the morning of 17 June, Wellington ordered his army to withdraw on a parallel course to his ally; the British and Belgians took position near the Belgian village of Waterloo.
On the morning of 18 June, one of the greatest ever feats of British arms began: The Battle of Waterloo. The British, Dutch, Belgian, Nassau and German troops were posted on higher ground south of Waterloo. There had been heavy rain overnight and Napoleon chose not to attack until almost midday. The delay meant that the Prussians had a chance to march towards the battle, but in the meantime, Wellington had to hold on. The French started their attack with an artillery bombardment. The first French attacks were then directed against the Chateau of Hougemont down from the main ridge. Here British and Nassau troops stubbornly defended the Hougomont buildings all day; the action eventually engaging a whole French Corps which failed to capture the Chateau. At half past one, the Anglo-Allied Army was assaulted by d'Erlon's infantry attack on the British left wing but the French were forced back with heavy losses. Later in the afternoon, British troops were amazed to see waves of cavalrymen heading towards them. The British troops, as per standard drill, formed infantry squares (hollow box-formations four ranks deep) after which the French cavalry was driven off. The British position was critical after the fall of La Haye Sainte, but fortunately, the Prussians started entering the battlefield. As the Prussian advance guard began to arrive from the east, Napoleon sent French units to stabilise his right wing. At around seven o'clock, Napoleon ordered his Old and Middle Guard to make a final desperate assault on the by now fragile Allied line. The attack was repulsed. At that point Wellington stood up and waved his hat in the air to signal a general advance. His army rushed forward from the lines in a full assault on the retreating French. Napoleon lost the battle.
Later history
Following the conclusion of the wars, the army was reduced. At this time, infantry regiments existed up to
See also
- Army of Spain (Peninsular War)
- British Volunteer Corps
- Chronology of events of the Peninsular War
- Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars
- Fencibles
- Grande Armée
- History of the British Army
- Militia (Great Britain)
- Militia (United Kingdom)
- National Army Museum
- Napoleonic Wars casualties
- The United Kingdom in the Napoleonic Wars
- Timeline of the British Army
- Types of military forces in the Napoleonic Wars
- List of British general officers killed in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
- British Army awards in the Napoleonic Wars
Notes
- ^ Chappell 2004, p. 8.
- ^ Chandler & Beckett 2003, p. 132.
- ^ a b c d e Haythornthwaite 1987, p. 6.
- ^ The Quebec Almanac; and British American Royal Kalendar, 1811. Quebec: J. Neilson, p. 11 [of the Kalendar].
- better source needed]
- ^ a b c d e f g Haythornthwaite 1987, p. 7.
- ^ Haythornthwaite 1995, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Glover 1974, p. 37.
- ^ Dumas & Vedel-Petersen 1923, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b c d Haythornthwaite 1987, p. 8.
- ^ Holmes 2002, p. 158.
- ^ a b Haythornthwaite 1987, p. 9.
- ^ Christine Haynes, Review, ‘’Journal of Military History‘’ April 2016 80#2 p 544
- ^ Jenny Uglow, In These Times: Living in Britain Through Napoleon's Wars, 1793–1815 (2015)
- ^ Fletcher & Younghusband 1994, p. 13.
- ^ Online version of Rules and regulations for the formations, field-exercise, and movements, of His Majesty's forces at the Internet Archive
- ^ Haythornthwaite 1996, p. 26.
- ^ Haythornthwaite 1996, p. 5.
- ^ Chappell 2004, p. 14.
- ^ Chappell 2004, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Chappell 2004, p. 11.
- ^ Chappell 2004, pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b c d "[Uniforms of] The British Army in the Napoleonic Wars - 1806-1812" (PDF). Painting Guides, Napoleonic Wars. Baccus 6mm, wargames figures and accessories. Retrieved 24 April 2024.
- ^ "Britain - Regimental lace patterns 1812 ( 1[st] to 10[th Foot])". Napoleonic Virtual Museum. Retrieved 24 April 2024.
- ^ a b c Haythornthwaite 1987, p. 14.
- ^ Haythornthwaite 1987, p. 24.
- ^ Ranks
- ^ Haythornthwaite 1987, p. 37.
- ^ Fletcher, Younghusband 1994, p. 27.
- ^ a b Sumner & Hook 2001, p. 3.
- better source needed]
- ^ Sumner & Hook 2001, pp. 20–1.
- ^ Sumner & Hook 2001, pp. 22–23.
- better source needed]
- better source needed]
- ^ Oman & Hall 1902, p. 119.
- ^ Ringoir 2006, p. [page needed].
- ^ Chartrand 2000, p. [page needed].
- ^ "Greek Light Infantry". The National Archives. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
- ^ "1st (The Duke of York's) Greek Light Infantry Regiment (1811–1816)". The National Archives. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
- ^ Steve Brown. "Heroes and Villains: Death and Desertion in the British Army 1811 to 1813". Retrieved 2 January 2011.
- ]
- ^ a b Bluth 2001, p. 62.
- ^ Bluth 2001, p. 63.
- ^ Bluth 2001, p. 65.
- ^ Venning 2005, p. 31.
- ^ Venning 2005, p. 15.
- ^ Venning 2005, p. 14.
- ^ quoted, Phipps 1926, I, p. 215.
- ^ Knight 2014, p. 76.
- ^ Fregosi 1989, p. 96.
- ^ Stephens 1887, pp. 288–289.
- ^ Fregosi 1989, p. 279.
- ^ Napier 1952, p. 549.
- ^ Chappell 2004, p. 17.
- ^ a b c d e Chappell 2004, p. 18.
- ^ Glover 1974, p. 82.
- ^ a b Chappell 2004, p. 24.
- ^ Chappell 2004, p. 33.
- ^ a b Chappell 2004, p. 34.
- ^ Glover 1974, p. 326.
- ^ Glover 1974, p. 329.
- ^ Bryant 1950, p. 98.
- ^ Bryant 1950, p. 86.
- ^ Nofi 1998, pp. 19, 28.
- ^ Nofi 1998, p. 31.
- ^ a b Haythornthwaite 1995, p. 19.
- ^ a b Haythornthwaite 1995, p. 18.
References
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- Bryant, Arthur (1950), The Age of Elegance: 1812–1822, London: Collins,
- Chandler, David; Beckett, Ian; (2003) The Oxford History of the British Army, UK: ISBN 0-19-280311-5
- Chappell, Mike; (2004) Wellington's Peninsula Regiments (2): The Light Infantry, Oxford: ISBN 1-84176-403-5
- Chartrand, René (2000), Émigré and Foreign Troops in British Service (2), Osprey, ISBN 978-1-85532-859-4
- Dumas, Samuel; Vedel-Petersen, K.O. (1923), Losses of Life Caused by War, pp. 36–37
- Fletcher, Ian; Younghusband, William; (1994) Wellington's Foot Guards, UK: Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-85532-392-3
- ISBN 0-09-173926-8
- Glover, Michael; (1974) The Peninsular War 1807–1814: A Concise Military History, UK: David & Charles, ISBN 0-7153-6387-5
- ISBN 0-85368-890-7
- Haythornthwaite, Philip J. (1995), The Colonial Wars Sourcebook, London: Arms and Armour Press, ISBN 1-85409-196-4
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Attribution
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Stephens, Henry Morse (1887), "Cathcart, William Schaw", in Stephen, Leslie (ed.), Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 9, London: Smith, Elder & Co, pp. 287–289
External links
- Redcoat: Officer fatality lists
- London Gazette archives – army and battle dispatches; officer appointments, promotions and casualties