Greek junta
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Kingdom of Greece (1967–1973) Βασίλειον τῆς Ἑλλάδος Vasíleion tís Elládos Hellenic Republic (1973–1974) Ἑλληνικὴ Δημοκρατία Ellinikí Dimokratía | |||||||||
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1967–1974 | |||||||||
Anthem: Hymn to Freedom | |||||||||
Capital | Athens | ||||||||
Common languages | Greek | ||||||||
Religion | Greek Orthodoxy | ||||||||
Demonym(s) | Greek, Hellene | ||||||||
Government | Unitary constitutional monarchy under a military dictatorship (1967–1973) Unitary semi-presidential republic under a military dictatorship (1 June to 25 November 1973) Unitary quasi-parliamentary republic under a military dictatorship (25 November 1973 to 24 July 1974) | ||||||||
Monarch | |||||||||
• King 1967–1973 | Constantine II | ||||||||
Georgios Zoitakis Georgios Papadopoulos | |||||||||
President | |||||||||
• 1973 | Georgios Papadopoulos | ||||||||
• 1973–1974 | Phaedon Gizikis | ||||||||
Konstantinos Kollias | |||||||||
• 1967–1973 | Georgios Papadopoulos | ||||||||
• 1973 | Spyros Markezinis | ||||||||
• 1973–1974 | Adamantios Androutsopoulos | ||||||||
Legislature | Hellenic Parliament (nominal, suspended) Rule by decree (actual) | ||||||||
Historical era | Cold War | ||||||||
21 April 1967 | |||||||||
• Constantine II exiled | 13 December 1967 | ||||||||
15 November 1968 | |||||||||
• Republic declared | 1 June 1973 | ||||||||
29 July 1973 | |||||||||
17 November 1973 | |||||||||
24 July 1974 | |||||||||
Area | |||||||||
• Total | 131,957 km2 (50,949 sq mi) | ||||||||
Population | |||||||||
• 1971 census | 8.768.372 | ||||||||
Currency | Greek drachma (GRD) | ||||||||
Driving side | right | ||||||||
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History of Greece |
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Greece portal |
The Greek junta or Regime of the Colonels
The
Background
The 1967 coup and the following seven years of military rule were the culmination of 30 years of national division between the forces of the
American influence in Greece
In 1944 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill determined to halt the Soviet encroachment in the Balkans, and ordered British forces to intervene in the Greek Civil War (see Dekemvriana) in the wake of the retreating German military. This was to be a lengthy and open ended commitment. The United States stepped in to help the Greek government against the communist forces in 1947.
In 1947, the United States formulated the
In 1952, IDEA issued a manifesto stating that a dictatorship was the only possible solution to Greece's problems, which the Greek scholar Christos Kassimeris called an "astonishing" statement since the communists had been defeated in 1949, Greece was enjoying relative prosperity after living standards had collapsed in the 1940s, and Greek politics were stable.[4] Kassimeris argued that since Papadopoulos played a large role in writing the 1952 manifesto, that it was his "personal ambition" rather than an objective fear of the Greek communists that was driving him forward because in no way could Greece be presented as being on the brink of a communist take-over in 1952.[4]
Greece was a vital link in the NATO defence arc which extended from the eastern border of Iran to the northernmost point in
Apostasia and political instability
After many years of conservative rule, the election of the Centre Union's Georgios Papandreou as Prime Minister was a sign of change. In a bid to gain more control over the country's government than his limited constitutional powers allowed, the young and inexperienced King Constantine II clashed with liberal reformers. In July 1964, Papandreou announced his intention to fire those officers belonging to IDEA, whom the king did not want dismissed, claiming it was his royal prerogative to protect the IDEA officers, which in turn led to massive demonstrations in Athens, which had a republican flavour.[10] The king dismissed Papandreou in 1965, causing a constitutional crisis known as the "Apostasia of 1965".
After making several attempts to form governments, relying on dissident Centre Union and conservative MPs, Constantine II appointed an interim government under Ioannis Paraskevopoulos, and new elections were called for 28 May 1967. There were many indications that Papandreou's Centre Union would emerge as the largest party, but would not be able to form a single-party government and would be forced into an alliance with the United Democratic Left, which was suspected by conservatives of being a proxy for the banned KKE. This possibility was used as a pretext for the coup.
A "Generals' Coup"
Greek historiography and journalists have hypothesized about a "Generals' Coup",[11] a coup that would have been deployed at Constantine's behest under the pretext of combating communist subversion.[12][13]
Before the elections that were scheduled for 28 May 1967, with expectations of a wide Center Union victory, a number of conservative
According to U.S. diplomat John Day, Washington also worried that Andreas Papandreou would have a very powerful role in the next government, because of his father's old age. According to Robert Keely and John Owens, American diplomats present in Athens at the time, Constantine asked U.S. Ambassador William Phillips Talbot what the American attitude would be to an extra-parliamentary solution to the problem. To this the embassy responded negatively in principle – adding, however, that, "U.S. reaction to such a move cannot be determined in advance but would depend on circumstances at the time." Constantine denies this.[15] According to Talbot, Constantine met the army generals, who promised him that they would not take any action before the coming elections. However, the proclamations of Andreas Papandreou made them nervous, and they resolved to re-examine their decision after seeing the results of the elections.[15]
In 1966, Constantine sent his envoy, Demetrios Bitsios, to
The deposed King's adoption of Sulzberger's claims against Karamanlis was castigated by Greece's left-leaning media, which denounced Karamanlis as "shameless" and "brazen".[18] At the time Constantine referred exclusively to Sulzberger's account to support the theory of a planned coup by Karamanlis, and made no mention of the alleged 1966 meeting with Bitsios, which he referred to only after both participants had died and could not respond.
As it turned out, the constitutional crisis did not originate either from the political parties, or from the Palace, but from middle-rank army putschists.
Coup d'état of 21 April
1967 Greek coup d'état | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Units involved | |||||||
5,000 servicemen, on foot or on tanks or armoured cars |
On 21 April 1967, just weeks before the scheduled elections, a group of right-wing army officers led by Brigadier Stylianos Pattakos and Colonels George Papadopoulos and Nikolaos Makarezos seized power in a coup d'état.[19] The colonels were able to seize power quickly by using elements of surprise and confusion. Pattakos was the commander of the Armour Training Centre (Κέντρο Εκπαίδευσης Τεθωρακισμένων, ΚΕΤΘ), based in Athens.
The coup leaders placed tanks in strategic positions in
By the early morning hours, the whole of Greece was in the hands of the colonels. All leading politicians, including acting Prime Minister
Papadopoulos' junta attempted to re-engineer the Greek political landscape by coup. Papadopoulos as well as the other junta members are known in Greece by the term "Aprilianoi" (Aprilians), denoting the month of the coup.[21][22][23][24][25] The term "Aprilianoi" has become synonymous with the term "dictators of 1974".[26]
Role of the King
When the tanks came to the streets of Athens on 21 April, the legitimate National Radical Union government, of which Rallis was a member, asked King Constantine to immediately mobilise the state against the coup; he declined to do so, and swore in a new government in accordance with the putschists' stipulations.
The King, who had relented and decided to co-operate, claimed till his death that he was isolated and did not know what else to do. He has since claimed that he was trying to gain time to organise a counter-coup and oust the Junta. He did organise such a counter-coup; however, the fact that the new government had legal sanction, in that it had been appointed by the legitimate head of state, played an important role in the coup's success. The King was later to regret his decision bitterly. For many Greeks, it served to identify him indelibly with the coup and certainly played an important role in the final decision to abolish the monarchy, sanctioned by the 1974 referendum.
The only concession the King could achieve was to appoint a civilian as prime minister, rather than Spandidakis.
Up until then constitutional legitimacy had been preserved, since under the Greek Constitution the King could appoint whomever he wanted as prime minister, as long as Parliament endorsed the appointment with a vote of confidence or a general election was called. It was this government, sworn-in during the early evening hours of 21 April, that formalised the coup. It adopted a "Constituent Act", an amendment tantamount to a revolution, cancelling the elections and effectively abolishing the constitution, which would be replaced later.
In the meantime, the government was to rule by decree. Since traditionally such Constituent Acts did not need to be signed by the Crown, the King never signed it, permitting him to claim, years later, that he had never signed any document instituting the junta. Critics claim that Constantine II did nothing to prevent the government (and especially his chosen prime minister, Kollias) from legally instituting the authoritarian government to come. This same government published and enforced a decree, already proclaimed on radio as the coup was in progress, instituting martial law. Constantine claimed he never signed that decree either.
King's counter-coup
King Constantine's counter-coup attempt | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Greek junta | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Constantine II Konstantinos Kollias | Georgios Papadopoulos |
From the outset, the relationship between Constantine and the colonels was an uneasy one. The colonels were not willing to share power, whereas the young king, like his father before him, was used to playing an active role in politics and would never consent to being a mere figurehead, especially in a military administration. Although the colonels' strong anti-communist, pro-NATO, and pro-Western views appealed to the United States, President Lyndon B. Johnson – in an attempt to avoid an international backlash – told Constantine that it would be best to replace the junta with a new government according to Paul Ioannidis in his book Destiny Prevails: My life with Aristóteles Onassis. Constantine took that as an encouragement to organize a counter-coup, although no direct help or involvement of the U.S. (or Britain)[27] was forthcoming.
The King finally decided to launch his counter-coup on 13 December 1967. Since Athens was militarily in the hands of the colonels, Constantine decided to fly to the small northern city of Kavala, where he hoped to be among troops loyal only to him. The vague plan that Constantine and his advisors had conceived was to form a unit that would invade and take control over Thessaloniki, where an alternative administration would be installed. Constantine hoped that international recognition and internal pressure between the two governments would force the junta to resign, leaving the field clear for him to return triumphant to Athens.
In the early morning hours of 13 December, the King boarded the royal plane, together with
However, Constantine's plans were overly bureaucratic, naïvely supposing that orders from a commanding general would automatically be obeyed.
In the circumstances, middle-ranking pro-junta officers neutralised and arrested Constantine's royalist generals and took command of their units, and subsequently put together a force to advance on Kavala to arrest the King. The junta, not at all shaken by the loss of their figurehead premier, ridiculed Constantine by announcing that he was hiding "from village to village". Realising that the counter-coup had failed, Constantine fled Greece on board the royal plane, taking his family and the helpless Kollias with him. They landed in Rome early in the morning of 14 December. Constantine remained in exile during the remainder of military rule. Although he subsequently returned to Greece, the abolition of the monarchy in 1973 removed his status as King.
Regency
The flight of Constantine and Kollias left Greece with no legal government or head of state. This did not concern the military junta. Instead the Revolutionary Council, composed of Pattakos, Papadopoulos, and Makarezos, appointed another member to the military administration, Major General
In hopes of giving legal sanction to the regime, the junta drafted a
In a legally controversial move, even under the junta's own Constitution, the Cabinet voted on 21 March 1972 to oust Zoitakis and replace him with Papadopoulos, thus combining the offices of Regent and Prime Minister. It was thought Zoitakis was problematic and interfered too much with the military. The King's portrait remained on coins, in public buildings, etc., but slowly, the military chipped away at the institution of the monarchy: the royal family's tax immunity was abolished, the complex network of royal charities was brought under direct state control, the royal arms were removed from coins, the Navy and Air Force dropped their "Royal" names, and newspapers were prohibited from publishing the King's photo or any interviews.
During this period, resistance against the colonels' rule became better organized among exiles in Europe and the United States. There was also considerable political infighting within the junta. Still, up until 1973, the junta appeared in firm control of Greece, and not likely to be ousted by violent means.
Junta characteristics
Ideology
The colonels preferred to call the coup an Ethnosotirios Epanastasis (Εθνοσωτήριος Επανάστασις, 'revolution to save the nation'). Their official justification was that a "communist conspiracy" had infiltrated Greece's bureaucracy, academia, press, and military, to such an extent that drastic action was needed to protect the country from communist takeover. Thus, the defining characteristic of the Junta was its staunch
In 1970, Georgalas published a book The Decline of Consumer Society, stating that consumerism had destroyed the Christian spiritual values of the West, leaving Greece as the last solitary outpost of Christian civilization.[28] In the same book, Georgalas stated the solution to social problems was not as many believed increased employment, but instead "lengthy psycho-therapeutic programmes" which would create "the free man in harmonious co-existence with himself and his fellow beings".[29] The British historian Richard Clogg described the writings of Georgalas and Konstantopoluos as "pretentious verbiage", claiming that they tended to use elaborate and impressive-sounding language to mask the shallowness of their theories.[28] In essence, intellectuals like Georgalas and Konstantopoulos argued that materialism and consumerism were corroding the spiritual strength of the Greek people, and the military regime would "cure" the Greeks by restoring the traditional values of Orthodoxy (Greek Christianity).[29] One of Papadopoulos' first acts after the coup was to change the pension laws to allow the veterans of the Security Battalions to collect pensions.[30]
A central part of the regime's ideology was xenophobia, which presented Greeks as the creators of civilization with the rest of the world jealous of the debts they owed to Greece.[31] Colonel Ioannis Ladas, the Secretary-general of the Ministry of Public Order, came to international prominence in the summer of 1968 when he personally beat up Panayiotis Lambrias, the editor of magazine Eikones for running an article saying that homosexuality was accepted as normal in ancient Greece.[31] When the BBC's Greek service reported the incident, Ladas gave a rant at a press conference, claiming that the BBC was run by homosexuals, making him into a sort of unofficial spokesman for the regime.[31]
At a subsequent speech before a visiting group of Greek-Americans on 6 August 1968, Ladas quoted Friedrich Nietzsche's statement that the ancient Greeks invented everything and went on to say: "Foreigners confess and acknowledge Greek superiority. Human civilization was wholly fashioned by our race. Even the enemies of Greece recognize that civilization is an exclusively Greek creation".[31] Ladas went on to denounce young men with long hair as "the degenerate phenomenon of hippy-ism", calling hippies "anti-social elements, drug addicts, sex maniacs, thieves, etc. It is only natural that they should be enemies of the army and the ideals which the military way of life serves".[32] Ladas ended his speech by arguing that Greeks for racial reasons were still the world's preeminent people, but had only declined of inadequate leadership, a problem which had been solved by the "revolution" of 21 April 1967.[32] Ladas claimed that Greece under military leadership would be "cured" of its problems and resume its rightful place in the world. Clogg noted that before the coup, Ladas had been associated with the far-right 4th of August Party, and contributed many articles to that party's journal, which was a "racist and anti-Semitic" magazine which glorified not only 4 August Regime, but also the Third Reich.[32]
The Greek novelist Yiorgos Theotokas once coined the term progonoplexia (Προγονοπληξία, 'ancestoritis') to describe an obsession with the heritage of the past, which many felt that Papadopoulos and the rest of the junta suffered from.[33] Papadopoulos often described the Greeks in his speeches as the "elect of God", claiming the regenerated Ellas Ellinon Christianon ('Greece for Christian Greeks') would be the example to the rest of the world as maintained that people all over the world would regard his ideology of "Helleno-Christian civilization" alongside the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle as the summit of intellectual achievement.[33]
The Greek junta has been characterized as neo-fascist.[34][35] The junta's ultranationalist, militaristic, and deeply anti-communist character has been liked to that of the interwar dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas, leading to many scholars describing the regime as fascistic.[36][37]
"Patient in a cast" and other metaphors
Throughout his tenure as the junta strongman, Papadopoulos often employed what have been described by the BBC as gory medical metaphors,[38] where he or the junta assumed the role of the "medical doctor".[39][40][41][42][43][44] The supposed "patient" was Greece. Typically Papadopoulos or the junta portrayed themselves as the "doctor" who operated on the "patient" by putting the patient's "foot" in an orthopedic cast and applying restraints on the "patient", tying him on a surgical bed and putting him under anesthesia to perform the "operation" so that the life of the "patient" would not be "endangered" during the operation. In one of his famous speeches Papadopoulos mentioned:[43][45][46]
We are in front of a patient who we have on a surgical bed, and who, should the surgeon not strap on the surgical bed during the operation and the anesthesia, there is a probability, rather than the surgery granting him the restoration of the health, to lead him to his death. ... The restrictions are the strapping of the patient to the surgical bed so that he will undergo the surgery without danger.
In the same speech Papadopoulos continued:[43][45]
We have a patient. We have put him in a plaster cast. We are checking him to find out if he can walk without the plaster cast. We break the initial cast, potentially to replace it with a new one, where necessary. The referendum shall become a general overview of the patient's capabilities. Let us pray for him never to need a cast again; and should he need one, we will put it to him. And the one thing I can promise you, is to invite you to witness the foot without a cast!
Other metaphors contained religious imagery related to the
Because the latter is someone else's concern. They are the concerns of those, who lit the fuse of the dynamite for the explosion which led to the rebirth of the State the night of 21 April 1967.
The religious themes and rebirth metaphors are also seen in the following:[original research?]
Our obligations are described by both our religion and our history. Christ teaches concord and love. Our history demands faith in the Fatherland. ... Hellas is being reborn, Hellas will accomplish great things, Hellas will live forever.[45]
Civil rights
As soon as the coup d'état was announced over Greek radio, martial music was continuously broadcast over the airwaves.
In fact, the junta crackdown was so fast that by September 1967, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and the Netherlands went before the European Commission of Human Rights to accuse Greece of violating most of the human rights protected by the European Convention on Human Rights.[53] 6,188 suspected communists and political opponents were imprisoned or exiled to remote Greek islands within the first week after the coup.[54]
Under the junta, torture became a deliberate practice carried out both by the Security Police and the Greek Military Police (ESA),[55][56] with an estimated 3,500 people detained in torture centres run by ESA.[53][54] Commonly used methods of torture included, but were not limited to, beating the soles of detainees' feet, sexual torture, choking and ripping out body hair. The Special Interrogation Unit of the Greek Military Police (EAT/ESA) used a combination of techniques that included continuous standing in an empty room, sleep and food deprivation, beatings and loud sounds.[57]
According to recent research based on new interviews with survivors, in the period from May to November 1973 this combination of interrogation techniques also included the repetition of songs that were popular hits of the time.[58] These were played loudly and repeatedly from loudspeakers. These methods attacked the senses without leaving any visible traces and have been classified since as torture by international organisations.[59][failed verification]
According to a human rights report by Amnesty International, in the first month of the 21 April coup an estimated 8,000 people were arrested.[53][54] James Becket,[60] an American attorney and author of Barbarism in Greece,[61][62] was sent to Greece by Amnesty International. He wrote in December 1969 that "a conservative estimate would place at not less than two thousand" the number of people tortured.[53][unreliable source?][63]
The citizens'
The junta allowed citizens to participate in ordinary societal events that reflected those of the United States and United Kingdom, such as rock concerts for example. However, citizens lived in extreme fear, as any behaviour that the junta disapproved of, coupled with the complete absence of any civil rights or freedoms, could easily result in torture, beatings, exile, imprisonment, or worse, and the labelling of the victims as
Complete lack of press freedom coupled with nonexistent civil rights meant that continuous cases of civil rights abuses could neither be reported nor investigated by an independent press or any other reputable authority. This led to a psychology of fear among the citizens during the Papadopoulos dictatorship, which became worse under Ioannidis.
External relations
The military government was given support by the United States as a
Though all NATO members except for Portugal, then under the fascist Estado Novo regime, despised the Regime of the Colonels, there was a mixed response to the junta from Western Europe.[68] The Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands filed a complaint before the Human Rights Commission of the Council of Europe in September 1967.[69] The Commission on Human Rights took the exceptional step of constituting a Sub-Commission to investigate the accusations of gross human rights abuses. The sub-commission reported its extensive on-site investigation and unearthed significant evidence of torture and human rights violations.[70] Greece however opted to leave the Council of Europe in December 1969 before a full verdict of the commission could be handed down.[69]
Countries such as the United Kingdom and West Germany on the other hand were voicing criticism about Greece's human rights record but supported the country's continued membership in the Council of Europe and NATO because of the country's strategic value for the western alliance.[71][72][73]
Unusually, in spite of the anti-communism of the Regime of the Colonels, it developed better relations with the Socialist Republic of Romania, ruled by the similarly brutal and despotic Nicolae Ceaușescu. Ceaușescu's rationale for seeking good working relations with the Greek junta stemmed from a mutual desire to maintain stability in the Balkans and due to the shared dictatorial characters of the two regimes.[74]
Sociocultural policies
To gain support for his rule, Papadopoulos projected an image that appealed to some key segments of Greek society. The son of a poor but educated rural family, he was educated at the prestigious Hellenic Military Academy. Papadopoulos allowed substantial social and cultural freedoms to all social classes, but political oppression and censorship were at times heavy-handed, especially in areas deemed sensitive by the junta, such as political activities, and politically related art, literature, film and music. Costa-Gavras's film Z and Mikis Theodorakis's music, among others, were never allowed even during the most relaxed times of the dictatorship, and an index of prohibited songs, literature and art was kept.
Western music and film
Remarkably, after some initial hesitation and as long as they were not deemed to be politically damaging to the junta, junta censors allowed wide access to Western music and films. Even the then-racy West German film
Meanwhile, at Matala, Crete, a hippie colony which had been living in the caves since the 1960s was never disturbed. Singer-songwriter Joni Mitchell was inspired to write the song "Carey" after staying in the Matala caves with the hippie community in 1971. Hippie colonies also existed in other popular tourist spots such as "Paradise Beach" in Mykonos.[83]
Greek folk music
During its rule, the dictatorship heavily utilized
Greek rock
In the early days of the dictatorship, Western music broadcasts were limited from the airwaves in favour of
Another pop group,
Songwriter Dionysis Savvopoulos, who was initially imprisoned by the regime, nevertheless rose to great popularity and produced a number of influential and highly politically allegorical, especially against the junta, albums during the period, including To Perivoli tou Trellou (Το Περιβόλι του Τρελλού, 'The Madman's Orchard'), Ballos (Μπάλλος, the name of Greek folk dance) and Vromiko Psomi (Βρώμικο Ψωμί, 'Dirty Bread').[80]
Tourism
Concurrently,
Agriculture
The farmers were Papadopoulos's natural constituency and were more likely to support him, seeing him as one of their own because of his rural roots. He cultivated this relationship by appealing to them, calling them i rahokokalia tou laou (η ραχοκοκαλιά του λαού, 'the backbone of the people') and cancelling all agricultural loans.[102][103] By further insisting on promoting, but not really enforcing for fear of middle-class backlash, religion and patriotism, he further appealed to the simpler ideals of rural Greece and strengthened his image as people's champion among farmers, who tended to ridicule the middle class. Furthermore, the regime promoted a policy of economic development in rural areas, which were mostly neglected by the previous governments, that had focused largely on urban industrial development.
Urban classes
While never strongly supported by the urban middle class, they at first generally accepted Papadopoulos's rule (albeit reluctantly). Bourgeois Greeks acquiesced to the junta with the understanding that the dictatorship would be temporary and that the colonels would hold free elections upon the restoration of order.[104] In addition, the Greek business community largely approved of the regime's economic policies, especially its promotion of tourism.
Economic policies
The 1967–1973 period was marked by high rates of economic growth coupled with low inflation and low unemployment. Economic growth was driven by investment in the
In addition, large scale construction of
Economists have criticized the waste, fraud, and abuse derived from the junta's economic policies. One notable example is tourism minister Ioannis Ladas' practice of granting ill advised loans to would be hoteliers in order to promote the tourism industry. This fostered the erection of a multitude of hotels, sometimes in non-tourist areas, and with no underlying business rationale. Several such hotels were abandoned unfinished as soon as the loans were secured, and their remains still dot the Greek countryside. These questionable loans are referred to as Thalassodania (Θαλασσοδάνεια, 'loans of the sea'), to indicate the loose terms under which they were granted.[106]
Another contested policy of the regime was the writing-off of agricultural loans, up to a value of 100,000 drachmas, to farmers. This has been attributed to an attempt by Papadopoulos to gain public support for his regime.
Italian connection
At the time, the Italian far right was very impressed with the methods of Papadopoulos and his junta. In April 1968, Papadopoulos invited fifty members of the Italian far right on a Greek tour, to demonstrate the junta's methods.
After their visit to Greece, the Italian neo-fascists also engaged in false flag operations and embarked on a campaign of infiltration of leftist, anarchist, and Marxist–Leninist organisations.[107] One of the neo-fascists conducted frequent provocations and infiltrations in the months leading to the Piazza Fontana bombing on 12 December 1969.[107] The Greek junta was so impressed with the manner in which their Italian counterparts were paving the way toward an Italian coup d'état that, on 15 May 1969, Papadopoulos sent them a congratulatory message stating that "His Excellency the Prime Minister notes that the efforts that have been undertaken by the Greek National government in Italy for some time start to have some impact".[20]
Anti-junta movement
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2012) |
The entire left wing of the Greek political spectrum, including the long outlawed Communist Party of Greece, opposed the junta from the start. Many new militant groups formed in 1968, both in exile and in Greece, to promote democratic rule. These included Panhellenic Liberation Movement, Democratic Defense, and the Socialist Democratic Union. The first armed action against the junta was Alexandros Panagoulis's failed attempt to assassinate George Papadopoulos, on 13 August 1968.
Assassination attempt by Panagoulis
The assassination attempt took place on the morning of 13 August, when Papadopoulos went from his summer residence in Lagonisi to Athens, escorted by his personal security motorcycles and cars. Alexandros Panagoulis ignited a bomb at a point of the coastal road where the limousine carrying Papadopoulos had to slow down, but the bomb failed to harm Papadopoulos. Panagoulis was captured a few hours later in a nearby sea cave, as the boat that would let him escape the scene of the attack had not shown up.
Panagoulis was transferred to the Greek Military Police (EAT-ESA) offices, where he was questioned, beaten, and tortured (see the proceedings of Theofiloyiannakos's trial). On 17 November 1968, he was sentenced to death. He remained in prison for five years. After democracy was restored, Panagoulis was elected into Parliament. He is regarded as emblematic of the struggle to restore democracy.
Broadening of the movement
The funeral of
On 28 March 1969, after two years of widespread censorship, political detentions and torture,
Also in 1969,
A lesser known Danish film, in Greek, Your Neighbor's Son, detailed the subordination and training of simple youths to become torturers for the junta.
International protest
The junta exiled thousands, on the grounds that they were communists and/or "enemies of the country". Most of them were subjected to internal exile on Greek deserted islands, such as
These included:
In the early hours of 19 September 1970, in Matteotti square in Genoa, geology student Kostas Georgakis set himself ablaze in protest against the dictatorship of George Papadopoulos. The junta delayed the arrival of his remains to Corfu for four months, fearing public reaction and protests. At the time, his death caused a sensation in Greece and abroad, as it was the first tangible manifestation of the depth of resistance against the junta. He is the only known anti-junta resistance activist to have sacrificed himself. He is considered the precursor of later student protest, such as the Athens Polytechnic uprising. The Municipality of Corfu dedicated a memorial in his honour, near his home in Corfu city.
In a speech before the U.S. Senate on 6 November 1971, Senator Lee Metcalf listed the members of the Greek junta who had served in the collaborationist Security Battalions and denounced the administration of Richard Nixon for supporting what he called a "junta of Nazi collaborators".[110] The German writer, investigative reporter and journalist Günter Wallraff traveled to Greece in May 1974. While in Syntagma Square, he protested against human right violations. He was arrested and tortured by the police, as he did not carry, on purpose, any papers on him that could identify him as a foreigner. After his identity was revealed, Wallraff was convicted and sentenced to 14 months in jail. He was released in August, after the end of the dictatorship.[111]
Velos mutiny
In an anti-
Pappas believed that since his fellow anti-junta officers had been arrested, there was no more hope for a movement inside Greece. He therefore decided to act alone in order to motivate global public opinion. He mustered all the crew to the stern and announced his decision, which was received with enthusiasm by the crew.[citation needed]
Pappas signalled his intentions to the squadron commander and NATO headquarters, quoting the preamble of the
This action increased international interest in the situation in Greece.[113] The commander, six officers, and twenty five petty officers requested permission to remain abroad as political refugees. Indeed, the whole crew wished to follow their commander but were advised by its officers to remain onboard and return to Greece to inform families and friends about what happened. Velos returned to Greece after a month with a replacement crew. After the fall of the junta all officers and petty officers returned to the Navy.[citation needed]
Collapse
The collapse of the junta both ideologically and politically was triggered by a series of events which unfolded soon after Papadopoulos' attempt at liberalisation, with ideological collapse preceding its eventual political collapse. During and following this ill-fated process the internal political strains of the junta came to the fore and pitted the junta factions against each other, thus destroying the seemingly monolithic cohesion of the dictatorship.
This had the effect of seriously weakening the coherence of the political message and, consequently, the regime's credibility. Later events showed that this was a fatal blow, from which the junta never recovered. At the same time, during Papadopoulos' attempt at liberalisation, some of the junta constraints were removed from Greece's body politic. This led to demands for more freedoms, and political unrest, in a society well used to democratic action prior to the dictatorship.
Normalization and attempts at liberalization
Despite his heavy-handed approach to dissent, Papadopoulos had indicated as early as 1968 that he was eager for a reform process. He had declared at the time that he did not want the "Revolution" (junta speak for the "dictatorship") to become a "regime". He attempted to initiate reforms in 1969 and 1970 but was thwarted by the hardline members of the junta, including Ioannidis. Subsequent to his 1970 failed attempt at reform, he threatened to resign. He was dissuaded when the hardliners renewed their personal allegiance to him.[104] There was a significant divide in the junta between those like Papadoupolos who identified with the legacy of Eleftherios Venizelos and hardliners who identified with Ioannis Metaxas.
On 10 April 1970 Papadopoulos announced the formation of the Simvouleftiki Epitropi (Συμβουλευτική Επιτροπή, "Advisory Council") otherwise known as "Papadopoulos' (pseudo) Parliament".[114][115] Composed of members elected through an electoral type process but limited only to ethnikofrones (Εθνικόφρων, 'regime supporters'), it was bicameral, composed of the Central Advisory Council and the Provincial Advisory Council. The Central Council met in Athens in the Parliament Building. Both councils had the purpose to advise the dictator. At the time of the announcement of the formation of the council, Papadopoulos explained that he wanted to avoid using the term Vouli (Βουλή, 'Parliament') for the Committee because it sounded bad.[115]
The council was dissolved just prior to Papadopoulos' failed attempt to liberalise his regime. As internal dissatisfaction grew in the early 1970s, and especially after an abortive coup by the Navy in early 1973,[104] Papadopoulos attempted to legitimize the regime by beginning a gradual "democratization" (See also the article on Metapolitefsi).
On 1 June 1973, he abolished the monarchy and declared Greece a republic with himself as president. He was confirmed in office after
Uprising at the Polytechnic
Papadopoulos' heavy-handed attempt at liberalisation did not find favour among many in Greece. The stilted democratisation process he proposed was constrained by multiple factors. His inexperience at carrying out an unprecedented political experiment of democratisation was burdened by his tendency to concentrate as much power in his hands as possible, a weakness he exhibited during the junta years when he would sometimes hold multiple high-echelon government portfolios. This especially antagonised the intelligentsia, whose primary exponents were the students. The students at the Law School in Athens, for example, demonstrated multiple times against the dictatorship prior to the events at the Polytechneion.
The tradition of student protest was always strong in Greece, even before the dictatorship. Papadopoulos tried hard to suppress and discredit the student movement during his tenure at the helm of the junta. But the liberalisation process he undertook allowed the students to organise more freely, and this gave the opportunity to the students at the National Technical University of Athens to organise a demonstration that grew progressively larger and more effective. The political momentum was on the side of the students. Sensing this, the junta panicked and reacted violently.[116]
In the early hours of Saturday, 17 November 1973, Papadopoulos sent the army to suppress the student strike and sit-in of the Eleftheri Poliorkimeni (Ελεύθεροι Πολιορκημένοι, 'Free Besieged'), as the students called themselves, at the Athens Polytechnic which had commenced on 14 November. Shortly after 3:00 am. EET, under almost complete cover of darkness, an
Ioannidis' involvement in inciting unit commanders to commit criminal acts during the uprising, so that he could facilitate his own upcoming coup, was noted in the indictment presented to the court by the prosecutor during the Greek junta trials, and in his subsequent conviction in the Polytechneion trial where he was found to have been morally responsible for the events.[117][118]
Ioannidis coup and regime
Ioannidis coup and regime | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
Hardliner faction | Government | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Dimitrios Ioannidis Phaedon Gizikis |
Georgios Papadopoulos Spyros Markezinis |
The uprising triggered a series of events that put an abrupt end to Papadopoulos' attempts at "liberalisation".[119]
Brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis, a disgruntled junta hardliner and long-time protégé of Papadopoulos as head of the feared Military Police, used the uprising as a pretext to reestablish public order, and staged a counter-coup that overthrew Papadopoulos and Spyros Markezinis on 25 November. Military law was reinstated, and the new junta appointed General Phaedon Gizikis as president and economist Adamantios Androutsopoulos as Prime Minister, although Ioannidis remained the behind-the-scenes strongman.
Ioannidis's heavy-handed and opportunistic intervention had the effect of destroying the myth that the junta was an idealistic group of army officers with exactly the same ideals who came to save Greece by using their collective wisdom. The main tenet of the junta ideology (and mythology) was gone and so was the collective. By default, he remained the only man at the top after toppling the other three principals of the junta. Characteristically, he cited ideological reasons for ousting the Papadopoulos faction, accusing them with straying from the principles of the Revolution, especially of being corrupt and misusing their privileges as army officers for financial gains.
Papadopoulos and his junta always claimed that the 21 April 1967 "revolution" saved Greece from the old party system. Now Ioannidis was, in effect, claiming that his coup saved the revolution from the Papadopoulos faction. The dysfunction as well as the ideological fragmentation and fractionalisation of the junta was finally out in the open. Ioannidis, however, did not make these accusations personally as he always tried to avoid unnecessary publicity. The radio broadcasts, following the now familiar "coup in progress" scenario featuring martial music interspersed with military orders and curfew announcements, kept repeating that the army was taking back the reins of power in order to save the principles of the revolution and that the overthrow of the Papadopoulos-Markezinis government was supported by the army, navy and air force.[120]
At the same time they announced that the new coup was a "continuation of the revolution of 1967" and accused Papadopoulos with "straying from the ideals of the 1967 revolution" and "pushing the country towards parliamentary rule too quickly".[120]
Prior to seizing power, Ioannidis preferred to work in the background and he never held any formal office in the junta. He was now the de facto leader of a puppet regime composed by members some of whom were rounded up by Greek Military Police (ESA) soldiers in roving jeeps to serve and others that were simply chosen by mistake.[121][122] The Ioannidis method of forming a government dealt yet another blow to the rapidly diminishing credibility of the regime both at home and abroad.
The new junta, despite its rather inauspicious origins, pursued an aggressive internal crackdown and an expansionist foreign policy.
Cypriot coup d'état, Turkish invasion and fall of the junta
Sponsored by Ioannidis, on 15 July 1974 a
There was a well-founded fear that an all-out war with Turkey was imminent. The Cyprus fiasco led to senior Greek military officers withdrawing their support for junta strongman Brigadier
The agenda was to appoint a national unity government that would lead the country to elections. Although former Prime Minister
Parliamentary democracy was thus restored and the
Trials of the junta (1975)
In January 1975 the junta members were arrested and in early August of the same year the government of Konstantinos Karamanlis brought charges of
Papadopoulos, Pattakos, Makarezos and Ioannidis were sentenced to death for high treason.[127] These sentences were later commuted to life imprisonment by the Karamanlis government for humanitarian reasons. A plan to grant amnesty to the junta principals by the Konstantinos Mitsotakis government in 1990 was cancelled after protests from conservatives, socialists and communists.[128]
Papadopoulos died in the hospital in 1999 after being transferred from Korydallos while Ioannidis remained incarcerated until his death in 2010. This trial was followed by a second trial which centred on the events and the murders during the Athens Polytechnic uprising and a third called "The trial of the torturers".
Legacy and Greek public opinion
The historical repercussions of the junta were profound and are still felt to this day in Greece. Internally the absence of civil rights and the oppression that followed created a sense of fear and persecution among many in the population creating trauma and division that persisted long after the fall of the junta. The Cyprus debacle created a tragedy that is still unfolding.[129][130][131][132]
While the Cyprus fiasco was due to the actions of Ioannidis,[133] it was Papadopoulos who started the cycle of coups. Externally, the absence of human rights in a country belonging to the Western Bloc during the Cold War was a continuous source of embarrassment for the free world, and this and other reasons made Greece an international pariah abroad and interrupted its process of integration with the European Union with incalculable opportunity costs.[129]
The 21 April regime remains highly controversial to this day, with most Greeks holding very strong and polarised views in regards to it. According to a survey by Kapa Research published in the centre-left newspaper To Vima in 2002, the majority of the electoral body (54.7%) consider the regime to have been bad or harmful for Greece while 20.7% consider it to have been good for Greece and 19.8% believe that it was neither good nor harmful.[134] In April 2013, the Metron Analysis Poll, found that 30% of Greeks yearned for the "better" days of the Junta.[135]
The experiences in Greece were formative for several CIA officers, including Clair George and Gust Avrakotos. Avrakotos, for example, dealt with the aftermath when Revolutionary Organization 17 November murdered his superior, CIA station chief Richard Welch, in 1975. Many of his junta-connected associates were also assassinated in this time period. Avrakotos himself had his cover blown by the media and his life became endangered.[3] In 1999, U.S. President Bill Clinton apologised on the behalf of the U.S. government for supporting the military junta in the name of Cold War tactics.[136][137]
There has been speculation that lingering social effects of the junta played a role in the rise of
See also
- History of modern Greece
- A Man
- "Imaste dio", a song by Mikis Theodorakis
- Your Neighbor's Son, about the making of the junta torturers
- Loafing and Camouflage
- Timeline of modern Greek history
Notes
- ^ Greek: καθεστώς των Συνταγματαρχών, romanized: kathestós ton Syntagmatarchón, IPA: [kaθesˈtos ton sindaɣmatarˈxon].
References
- ^ Perkins, Bradford; Cohen, Warren; LaFeber, Walter; Iriye, Akira (1995). The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations: Volume 4, America in the Age of Soviet Power, 1945–1991. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ a b c Simpson, Christoper Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988 p. 81
- ^ a b Charlie Wilson's War, George Crile, 2003, Grove/Atlantic.
- ^ a b Kassimeris, Christos Greece and the American Embrace: Greek Foreign Policy Towards Turkey, the US and the Western Alliance, London: I.B. Tauris, 2009 p. 75
- ^ Ganser, Daniele (2005). NATO's Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe Routledge. p. 216.
- The Chicago Tribune.
- ^ Kassimeris, Christos (2006). "Causes of the 1967 Greek Coup". Democracy and Security. 2(1), 61–72.
- ^ Weiner, Tim (2007), Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA, Doubleday, p. 383.
- ^ a b "Clinton Says U.S. Regrets Aid to Junta in Cold War", Los Angeles Times, 21 November 1999.
- ^ Kassimeris, Christos Greece and the American Embrace: Greek Foreign Policy Towards Turkey, the US and the Western Alliance, London: I.B. Tauris, 2009 p. 46
- ^ Marios Ploritis, "Διογένης και άνακτες" Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, To Vima, 10 December 2000, (in Greek).
- ^ Stilis Alatos, "Tα καμπούρικα"[permanent dead link], Ta Nea, 15 February 2007, (in Greek).
- ^ C. L. Sulzberger, An Age of Mediocrity; Memoirs and Diaries, 1963–1972, New York: Macmillan, 1973, p. 575.
- ^ Alexis Papachelas, "Everything George Rallis recounted to me", To Vima, 19 March 2006
- ^ a b TV documentary "ΤΑ ΔΙΚΑ ΜΑΣ 60's – Μέρος 3ο: ΧΑΜΕΝΗ ΑΝΟΙΞΗ Archived 6 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine" by Stelios Kouloglu
- ^ Alexis Papachelas, "Constantine Speaks", To Vima, 29 January 2006.
- ^ C.L. Sulzberger, Postscript with a Chinese Accent, Macmillan, 1974, p. 277.
- ^ a b Giannis Politis, "Συνεχίζει τις προκλήσεις Ο Κωνσταντίνος Γλύξμπουργκ"[permanent dead link], Ta Nea, 10 May 1997.
- ^ "American/World History 1967–1968". Historycentral.com. Retrieved 15 June 2013.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7146-5607-6
- ^ Dēmētrios N. Chondrokoukēs (1983). Hē atheatē pleura tou PASOK. Isokratēs. p. 145.
βραχυκυκλωθή άπό άτομα τά όποία έχουν λιβανίσει μέχρι άηδίας τό έπάρατο καθεστώς τής 7ετίας μέ τά άλλεπάλληλα τηλεγραφήματα, τά όποία έχουν στείλει στούς " Απριλιανούς" δηλώνοντας πίστη, άφοσίωσι, υπακοή κ.τ.λ.
- ^ Andreas George Papandreou (1976). Apo to P.A.K. sto PA.SO.K.: logoi, arthra, synenteuxeis, dēlōseis tou Andrea G. Papandreou. Ekdoseis Ladia. p. 127.
Τέλος ένοχοι είναι καί Ιδιώτες πού χρησιμοποιώντας τίς προσωπικές τους σχέσεις μέ τούς Απριλιανούς, έθη- σαύρισαν σέ βάρος τοϋ έλληνικοϋ λαοϋ. Ό Ελληνικός λαός δέν ξεχνά πώς, άν είχαν τιμωρηθή οί δοσίλογοι τής Γερμανικής κατοχής, δέν .
- ^ Giannēs Katrēs (1983). Hē alētheia einai to phōs pou kaiei. Ekdoseis Th. Kastaniōtē. p. 30.
με αυξημένη βαρβαρότητα απ' ό,τι στους υπόλοιπους καταδικους. Και δεν εννοούμε, φυσικά, τους ελάχιστους Απριλιανούς, που έχουν απομείνει στον Κορυδαλλό, με τους κλιματισμούς, τα ψυγεία και την ασυδοσία των επισκεπτηρίων.
- ^ Dēmētrios Nik Chondrokoukēs (1976). Hoi anentimoi kai ho "Aspida". Kedros. p. 300.
Τό δημοσιευόμενο τώρα σκεπτικό τής απόφασης τοΰ δμελοΰς Έφετείου πού δίκασε τούς πρωταίτιους Απριλιανούς, δικαιώνει τήν άποψη τούτη καί λέγει: "... Έπέφερε άποδυνάμωσιν τής έν τώ στρατώ άντιθέτου ιδεολογικής μερίδος, τής έντόνως ...
- ^ Dēmētrios Nik Chondrokoukēs (1976). Hoi anentimoi kai ho "Aspida". Kedros. p. 12.
Επρεπε έτσι νά διαβρωθούν οι πολιτικοι θεσμοι της χώρας και νά διογκωθή ό κομμουνιστικός κίνδυνος. "Ολα τούτα οΐ Απριλιανοί τά προπαρασκεύασαν και τά επέτυχαν έντεχνα αλλα "νόμιμα" κάτω άπό τις ευλογίες ενός συντεταγμένου κράτους.
- ^ Ομάδα Εκπαιδευτικών (14 July 2014). Λεξικό Σύγχρονο της Νεοελληνικής Γλώσσας. Pelekanos Books. p. 141. GGKEY:QD0C0PRDU6Z.
απριλιανοί: οι δικτατορες του 1974
- doi:10.12681/hr.329.
- ^ a b Clogg, Richard "The Ideology of the "revolution of 21 April 1967'" pp. 36–58 from Greece Under Military Rule edited by Richard Clogg & George Yannopoloulos; London: Secker & Warburg, 1971 p. 43.
- ^ a b Clogg, Richard "The Ideology of the "revolution of 21 April 1967'" pp. 36–58 from Greece Under Military Rule edited by Richard Clogg & George Yannopoloulos; London: Secker & Warburg, 1971 pp. 43–44.
- ^ Simpson, Christoper Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988 p. 82
- ^ a b c d Clogg, Richard "The Ideology of the "revolution of 21 April 1967'" pp. 36–58 from Greece Under Military Rule edited by Richard Clogg & George Yannopoloulos; London: Secker & Warburg, 1971 p. 41.
- ^ a b c Clogg, Richard "The Ideology of the "revolution of 21 April 1967'" pp. 36–58 from Greece Under Military Rule edited by Richard Clogg & George Yannopoloulos; London: Secker & Warburg, 1971 p. 42.
- ^ a b Clogg, Richard "The Ideology of the 'revolution of 21 April 1967'" pp. 36–58 from Greece Under Military Rule edited by Richard Clogg & George Yannopoloulos; London: Secker & Warburg, 1971 p. 45.
- ^ Giannis Katris, The Birth of Neofascism in Greece, 1971
- ^ Clogg, Richard "The Ideology of the "revolution of 21 April 1967'" pp. 36–58 from Greece Under Military Rule edited by Richard Clogg & George Yannopoloulos; London: Secker & Warburg, 1971 p. 53.
- S2CID 213982676, retrieved 19 September 2022
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- ^ The Listener. Vol. 79. British Broadcasting Corporation. January 1968. p. 561. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
It's no secret that Mr George Papadopoulos, the top man of the bunch, with his gory surgical metaphors, his flinty eyes, his flood of garbled messianic language, was for years under psychiatric treatment. Mr Pattakos, the strutting, bullet-headed
- ISBN 978-0-7145-2781-9. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
Papadopoulos, returning to his metaphor of Greece as a patient in plaster, described this legal construct as 'a light walking cast'. The Law on the State of Siege, he said, was 'striving for breath, dying, trying in vain to stand on its feet'.
- ^ Current Biography Yearbook. Vol. 31. H. W. Wilson Company. 1971. p. 342. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
Clinging to his predilection for medical analogies, Papadopoulos declared after the referendum: 'The country is still in a plaster cast and the fractures have not healed. The cast will be kept on even after the referendum so that it should not ...'
- ^ Greek Report. 1969. p. 24. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
'We have a patient. We have placed him in a plaster cast. We keep him there until the wound heals,' said Premier George Papadopoulos, the colonel who is strongman of the current Greek military regime. He was only trying to explain why
- ISBN 978-0-292-70230-1.
Papadopoulos made great play during the Junta years in Greece): something in it for everybody. ... For every philosophical sect, as Nussbaum emphasizes, 'the medical analogy is not simply a decorative metaphor; it is an important tool both of discovery and of justification'
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8014-9993-7. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
And yet metaphor was a necessary part of his persuasive rhetoric; he described Greece as a patient to convince journalists ... Papadopoulos's desire for a mimetic relationship between what one said and what one meant is evident in his press law, which ... doses; that the 'cast' would be constantly replaced 'where it [was] needed'; and that language and literature would be 'cleansed'.
- ISBN 9780674241756. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
Thanasis Valtinos' story, 'The Plaster Cast', is based entirely on a metaphor frequently used by Colonel Papadopoulos to justify the military coup and later the prolongation of martial law. Greece, he would say, was in grave danger. We had to ...
- ^ a b c d Emmi Mikedakis. "Manipulating Language: Metaphors in the Political Discourse of Georgios Papadopoulos (1967–1973)" (PDF). Flinders University: dspace.flinders.edu.au. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
- Athens Academy. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
Η μεταφορά ωστόσο, είναι ο κυρίαρχος ρητορικός τρόπος που χρησιμοποιεί οΠαπαδόπουλος στους λόγους του. Θυμίζω το περίφημο διάγγελμά του: "ευρισκόμεθα προενός ασθενούς, τον οποίον έχομεν επί χειρουργικής κλίνης…οι περιορισμοί είναι ηπρόσδεσις του ασθενούς επί κλίνης δια να υποστή ακινδύνως την εγχείρισιν
- ^ Robert Shannan Peckham (28 June 1999). "Obituary: George Papadopoulos". The Independent.
Greeks woke up on the morning of Friday 21 April 1967 with military marches and national folk music broadcast on the radio, and with the dictatorship a fait accompli.
- ISBN 978-0-307-37420-2.
Greece in those days was littered with propaganda, and radios or public loudspeakers regularly blared out martial music. The grotesque symbol of the junta—a soldier standing before a spread-winged phoenix—was everywhere ...
- ^ The Spectator. Vol. 219. F.C. Westley. 1967. p. 772. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
People went about their business in the usual way, undisturbed by the armoured cars and the martial music churned out by the radio.
- ^ Το Δεντρο. Vol. 161–162. K. Mauroudēs. 2008. p. 13. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
Έγινε Χούντα. Ανοίξτε αμέσως το ραδιόφωνο. Το ραδιόφωνο: διάγγελμα Παπαδόπουλου, τσάμικα και καλαματιανά, "αποφασίζομεν και διατάσσομεν". Ό,τι συζητούσαμε ...
- ISBN 0-7145-2781-5. Retrieved 25 May 2022. "At 0643 on April 21, 1967, Armed Forces Central Radio announced that a Royal Decree had been promulgated implementing the suspension procedure. The statement was fraudulent. The king had signed no decree and most of the cabinet who were supposed to have proposed it, including Prime Minister Panayotis Kanellopoulos, were under arrest."
- ^ Greek Constitution (Syntagma). Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- ^ ISBN 1-56751-252-6
- ^ a b c "Greece: Answering to History". Time. 1 September 1975. Archived from the original on 12 December 2008. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
Witness after witness testified that within a week of Papadopoulos' 21 April 1967, coup more than 8,000 had been arrested. Of these, 6,188 were banished into exile. Another 3,500 were subsequently sent to ESA torture centers. One prosecution witness, former Colonel Spyridon Moustaklis, 49, was unable to answer questions because brain damage caused by beatings had left him mute and semiparalyzed. Communicating by groans and gestures, glaring at the defendants, Moustaklis clumsily tore his shirt open to reveal the scars that marked his body. Said his wife: 'We have a little girl who has never heard her father's voice.' Verdicts on the 31 accused, which could lead to maximum sentences of 25 years, are due next month.
- ^ Lawrence Van Gelder "Din nabos soen" Archived 26 August 2003 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.
- ^ Lawrence Van Gelder (29 August 1984). "Danish 'Phoenix' and 'Neighbor's Son'". The New York Times.
- ISBN 1-56751-052-3.
- ^ Papaeti, Anna (2013). "Music, Torture, Testimony: Reopening the Case of the Greek Military Junta (1967–74)". The World of Music special issue: "Music and Torture | Music and Punishment" 2:1(2013), guest edited by M. J. Grant and Anna Papaeti, pp. 73–80.
- ^ UN Committee Against Torture (9 May 1997). "Concluding observations: Israel". Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
- ^ "James Becket bio from". IMDb. 6 August 1997. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
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The country became a true military police state
- ^ "George Papadopoulos; Led Military Junta in Greece". Los Angeles Times, 28 June 1999.
- ^ "The Poly-Papadopoulos". Time. 3 April 1972. Archived from the original on 13 December 2008. Retrieved 6 July 2008.
Many democratic-minded Greeks resent the open U.S. support of the Papadopoulos dictatorship. Last month Washington gave further evidence of its acceptance of his regime by negotiating for home-port rights in the bays near Athens for the Mediterranean-based Sixth Fleet. In addition, the Nixon Administration is trying to persuade Congress to up military aid to Greece from about $90 million to $118 million.
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- ^ "Helga on IMDB". IMDb. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- ^ Summarised by the Horror Film Archive Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine thus: "A young man finds himself turning into a bloodsucking monster. Set on the Greek island of Hydra. A must for all Cushing fans"
- ^ Incense for the Damned on IMDB, which summarises the film as "A group of friends search for a young English Oxford student who has disappeared whilst researching in Greece ..."
- ^ Review of "Bloodsuckers", The New York Times
- ^ "Woodstock". Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Greek blog site. Translation: "The beatings and arrests during the Woodstock showing in 1970 ..."
- ^ a b Matt Barrett. "The Rise of the Junta in Greece". "In 1971 the movie Woodstock is shown in Athens, causing near riots. For young people it is one of the most exciting events of the period and when Jimi Hendrix appears on the screen the glow of a thousand bic-lighters and candles fills the theater." and "Savopoulos becomes a hero of the youth. His album Vromeko Psomi (Dirty Bread) is a classic, a thinly veiled attack on the dictatorship, that if they heard it, must have had the colonels wringing their hands wondering what to do with this guy."
- ISBN 978-1-78238-645-2.
- ISBN 978-1-78238-001-6.
- ^ a b Matt Barrett. "November 17th, Cyprus and the Fall of the Junta" . "Because tourism is such an important part of the Greek economy, the bans on mini-skirts, long hair and other symbols of decadence are not enforced." and "Places like Paradise Beach in Mykonos and Matala, Crete become hippy colonies, made up mostly of foreigners and a handful of adventurous young Greeks."
- ISSN 1108-6963. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
- ^ "Nikos Mastorakis" Archived 10 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Museum of Broadcast Communications. "Nikos Mastorakis was the TV personality sine qua non of the dictatorship years."
- YouTube(Give me your hand) on YouTube
- ^ Athens Guide. "Socrates". "Socrates will probably never get inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. But while other groups were becoming well known in the free world, this Hendrix-style blues band was playing to standing-room-only crowds in a small club in Athens, during Greece's military dictatorship, a period when even Rolling Stone albums were hard to find, and for a time illegal."
- ^ "Millennium Top-1000: Nostradamos Ta Paramythia Ths Giagias and Dws'moy to Xeri Soy". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- YouTube
- YouTube
- ^ "Kostas Tournas official website". Tournas.gr. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- YouTube
- ^ Kostas Tournas article on Greek Wikipedia. "(The song) "Anthrope agapa" was motivated by an anti-war film"
- YouTube
- ^ Lost in Tyme. "After the split of 'Poll', Kostas Tournas went on to record a great progressive-psychedelic concept solo album."
- ^ Χρήστος Καρράς (6 October 2012). "Ο Τουρνάς ξαναπερπατά τα "Απέραντα Χωράφια"". Athinorama.
- ^ Δελτίο Τύπου musicpaper.gr (11 September 2012). "Απέραντα χωράφια" του Κώστα Τουρνά καρποφορούν 40 χρόνια μετά (in Greek). musicpaper.gr. Archived from the original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
Η Ορχήστρα Σύγχρονης Μουσικής της ΕΡΤ υπό τη διεύθυνση του Στάθη Σούλη παρουσιάζει ένα μοναδικό μουσικό ταξίδι με ένα έργο ορόσημο της ελληνικής ροκ σκηνής [translation: presents a unique musical journey with a work-landmark in the Greek rock scene], το Σάββατο 15 Σεπτεμβρίου, στις 20:30, στο "Κηποθέατρο" του Δήμου Παπάγου. 40 χρόνια μετά "Τα απέραντα χωράφια" του Κώστα Τουρνά θα ακουστούν ξανά με τη σύμπραξη της Ορχήστρας Σύγχρονης Μουσικής της ΕΡΤ σε μια βραδιά-αφιέρωμα στη μουσική του...
- ^ ""Τα απέραντα χωράφια" του Κώστα Τουρνά". Newsbeast.gr. 25 September 2019.
Σύμφωνα με το περιοδικό "Ποπ & Ροκ" ο δίσκος συγκαταλέγεται ανάμεσα στους δέκα δίσκους-σταθμούς του ελληνικού ροκ. Το προοδευτικό και ψυχεδελικό αυτό άλμπουμ το ηχογράφησε ο Τουρνάς συνδυάζοντας τη συμφωνική ορχήστρα με το ροκ γκρουπ "Ρουθ", κάτι πρωτοποριακό για την εποχή.
- ^ "NME online music magazine". NME. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
- YouTube) from Astroneira
- ^ Arnd Krüger. "A Cultural Revolution? The Boycott of the European Athletics Championships by the West German Team in Athens 1969", in: CESH (Hrsg.), Proceedings Fourth Annual Conference. Band 1. Florenz 1999, 162–166.
- ISBN 0-7735-0887-2
- ISBN 978-0-7735-2202-2.
- ^ a b c d Ioannis Tzortzis, "The Metapolitefsi that never was" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 July 2007. Retrieved 15 June 2007. Quote: "The Americans asked the Greek government to allow the use of their bases in Greek territory and air space to supply Israel; Markezinis, backed by Papadopoulos, denied on the grounds of maintaining good relations with the Arab countries. This denial is said to have turned the US against Papadopoulos and Markezinis." Quote: "Thus the students had been played straight into the hands of Ioannidis, who looked upon the coming elections with a jaundiced eye." Quote: "The latter [i.e. Markezinis] would insist until the end of his life that subversion on behalf… Markezinis was known for his independence to the US interests." Quote: "In that situation Ioannidis was emerging as a solution for the officers, in sharp contrast to Papadopoulos, whose accumulation 'of so many offices and titles (President of Republic, Prime Minister, minister of Defence) was harming the seriousness of the regime and giving it an unacceptable image, which was not left un-exploited by its opponents". Quote: "The first attempt of Papadopoulos to start a process of reform occurred in the spring of 1968. He was claiming that if the 'Revolution' stayed more than a certain time in power, it would lose its dynamics and transform into a 'regime', which was not in his intentions. He tried to implicate Markezinis in the attempt; however, he met the stiff resistance of the hard-liners. Another attempt was again frustrated in the end of 1969 and the beginning of 1970; Papadopoulos was then disappointed and complaining 'I am being subverted by my fellow Evelpides cadets!’ As a result of this second failure, he considered resigning in the summer of 1970, complaining that he lacked any support from other leading figures, his own closest followers included. But the rest of the faction leaders renewed their trust to him." Quote: "The 1973 oil crisis finally dealt a real financial shock to the Greek economy, as it did to all non-oil producing countries, and marked the end of inflation-free growth in Greece for more than two decades."
- ^ Kathimerini. "Remember Pattakos, the striking baldie superstar of the junta, who never missed a chance to pose with a trowel at hand and never missed a documentary of Epikaira"
- ^ Elefthero Vima Archived 2 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine Quote: "Αλλά, για να έρθει και η ψυχική κάθαρση να βγουν τα κιτάπια των τραπεζών για τα θαλασσοδάνεια που πήραν επί χούντας οι ευυπόληπτοι πολίτες και αγόρασαν γη και οικόπεδα για να κτίσουν." Translation: "... for the loans of the sea which were received, during the junta years, by respected citizens and bought land and properties to build on"
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4985-1069-1.
- ^ John Karavidas, George Seferis and the BBC, BBC Greek service, translation by Google. Retrieved 6 July 2008
- ISBN 9781848859524.
- ^ Simpson, Christoper America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Destructive Impact on Our Domestic and Foreign Policy, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988 pp. 81–82.
- ^ "Biography of Günther Wallraff". Guenter-wallraff.com. 9 December 1969. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- ISBN 9781848859524.
- doi:10.12681/hr.329.
- ^ Το (πολιτικό) παρασκήνιο του τελικού στο Γουέμπλεϊ Ιούνιος 1971 Archived 23 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine Quote: "Δύο μεγάλα αθλητικά γεγονότα μέσα στην ίδια χρονιά, το 1971, έφεραν την Ελλάδα ξανά στο προσκήνιο μετά τη διεθνή απομόνωσή της για τρία χρόνια εξαιτίας του θλιβερού πραξικοπήματος του 1967. Θέλοντας να δημιουργήσει την εντύπωση μιας δήθεν φιλελευθεροποίησης στη λειτουργία του πολιτεύματος, ο Παπαδόπουλος «προκηρύσσει» μέσα στην ίδια χρονιά «εκλογές» για την ανάδειξη Συμβουλευτικής Επιτροπής, ενός είδους υβριδικής, μικρής Βουλής, και αδειάζει τα ξερονήσια και τις φυλακές από κάμποσους πολιτικούς κρατουμένους, μερικοί από τους οποίους παίρνουν διαβατήριο και αναχωρούν για το εξωτερικό. " ΦΩΤΕΙΝΗ ΤΟΜΑΗ | Κυριακή 20 Απριλίου 2008 Article: To Vima By Fotini Tomai 20 April 2008 (In Greek)
- ^ a b Ο κ. πρόεδρος και η χούντα from isopress "Mr President and the Junta" Ελευθεροτυπία, 30 September 2007 Eleftherotypia 30 September 2007 Quote: "Τη δημιουργία της «Επιτροπής» εξήγγειλε στις 10.4.70 ο δικτάτορας Γεώργιος Παπαδόπουλος σε συνέντευξη Τύπου, ως μέτρο φιλελευθεροποίησης του καθεστώτος. Οπως εξήγησε στους ξένους και Ελληνες δημοσιογράφους, ο Παπαδόπουλος χρησιμοποίησε τον όρο «Συμβουλευτική Επιτροπή», γιατί θεωρούσε τη λέξη Βουλή «ολίγον κακόηχον»."
- ^ Kostis Kornetis (2013). Children of the Dictatorship. Student Resistance, Cultural Politics and the "Long 1960s" in Greece. New York : Berghahn Books.
- ^ Tsevas report Quote: "Οι Ιωαννίδης και Ρουφογάλης, δια των εις αυτούς πιστών Αξιωματικών και πρακτόρων, επηρεάζουν σοβαρώς και σαφώς την όλην επιχείρησιν, εξαπολύοντες κύμα βιαιοτήτων και πυροβολισμών, επί τω τέλει της δημιουργίας ευνοϊκών δια την προαποφασισθείσαν κίνησιν συνθηκών ασφαλείας, αναταραχής και συγκρούσεων."
- ^ Eleftherotypia Unrepentant for the Dictatorship. Retrieved 15 August 2008 (In Greek)
English translation by Google - Washington Post16 April 1973, p. A6.
- ^ a b BBC: On this day quote:A military communiqué announced the overthrow of the government was supported by the army, navy and air force and said it was a "continuation of the revolution of 1967", when the Greek colonels, headed by Mr Papadopoulos, seized control. The statement went on to accuse Mr Papadopoulos of "straying from the ideals of the 1967 revolution" and "pushing the country towards parliamentary rule too quickly".
- ^ "Greece marks '73 student uprising" Archived 17 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine, and: "the notorious Brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis now serving a life sentence for his part in the 1967 seizure of power – immediately scrapped a programme of liberalisation introduced earlier" and: "His was but to do the bidding of a junta strongman who had never made a secret of his belief that Greeks were not ready for democracy." Athens News, 17 November 1999
- ^ Mario Modiano The Times, "A long, happy summer night 30 years ago" Archived 5 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Athens News, 23 July 2004 quote1: "My friend had been sworn in as a minister by mistake. After his coup, Ioannidis dispatched military policemen in jeeps to round up the people he needed to man a puppet government. When they turned up at my friend's home and ordered him to follow them, he was convinced that the soldiers intended to shoot him." quote 2: "The meeting lasted five hours. Then there was a break, and by the time the meeting resumed, Evangelos Averoff, the former foreign minister, who was there, had already telephoned Constantine Karamanlis in Paris to urge him to return immediately and assume the reins of power."
- ^ "Μια σημαντική συνεισφορά στην αλήθεια για το 1974 | Defence-point.gr".
- ^ "1974: Greek military rule gives in to democracy". BBC Online. 23 July 1974. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
- ^ "Greeks Spurn Monarchy", Deseret News 9 December 1974, p. 1A.
- ^ a b c d "The Colonels on Trial". Time. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- ^ "Answering to History". Time. 1 September 1975. Archived from the original on 12 December 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- ^ "Greece Cancels Plan to Pardon Ex-Junta Members". Time. 31 December 1990. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- ^ a b "'I Am with You, Democracy Is with You'". Time. 5 August 1974. Quote: "Denied Benefits. When the Council of Europe tried to investigate charges that the regime was torturing prisoners, Athens quit the respected if powerless body rather than risk the inquiry. The Common Market was so repelled by the actions of the junta that it expelled Greece from associate membership in the EEC, thus denying the Greek economy some $300 million annually in agricultural benefits." and "Caramanlis called the crisis 'a national tragedy' and appealed to Greece's armed forces to bring about a 'political change' in a liberal and democratic direction." Retrieved 6 July 2008
- JSTOR 1147991.
to crystallize as the Cyprus tragedy was enlarged by the Turkish invasion.
- S2CID 145139267.
problem of Cyprus and might have spared the island from the tragedy of 1974
- ^ Modiano, Mario (23 July 2004). "A long, happy summer night 30 years ago". Athens News. Archived from the original on 25 January 2012.
It was clear that this was a critical day for the future of Greece. Turkey had invaded Cyprus on 20 July while the general mobilisation ordered by the Greek regime turned out to be a major fiasco. The civilian government of Adamantios Androutsopoulos, appointed by the second junta under Military Police Brigadier Demetrios Ioannidis, had suddenly vanished from public sight
- ^ Models of Transitional Justice – A Comparative Analysis Stephen A. Garrett International Studies Association 41st Annual Convention Los Angeles, CA 14–18 March 2000 Quote: "Perhaps as important as anything else in establishing the vulnerability of that regime to prosecution was its total discreditation as an institution. Certainly the Cyprus fiasco played a key role here, but also important was the failure of the Papadopolous/Ioannidis government ever 'to consolidate, to institutionalize and to legitimate itself'."
- ^ "Macedonian Press Agency: News in English, 02-04-21". hri.org.
- ^ "One in three Greeks yearns for junta years: Poll". The Times of India.
- ^ "Clinton lamenta el apoyo de EU a Junta Griega", La Opinión: Los Angeles, CA, 21 November 1999, page A1.
- ^ Hunt, Terence (21 November 1999). "Clinton concedes regret for U.S. support of Greek junta". The Topeka Capital-Journal. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 26 December 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008 – via FindArticles.
- ^ Are Greek Policemen Really Voting in Droves for Greece's Neo-Nazi Party?, The Atlantic, 22 June 2012
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0571197941.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - Woodhouse, C. M. (1985). The Rise and Fall of the Greek Colonels. London. ISBN 978-0246124692.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Nafpliotis, Alexandros (2012). Britain and the Greek Colonels: Accommodating the Junta in the Cold War. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1848859524.
External links
- Barrett, Matt. "The Rise of the Junta in Greece".
- Barrett, Matt. "November 17, Cyprus and the Fall of the Junta".