History of games

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Khosrau I, from "A treatise on chess", 14th century.[1][2]

The history of games dates to the ancient human past.[3] Games are an integral part of all cultures and are one of the oldest forms of human social interaction. Games are formalized expressions of play which allow people to go beyond immediate imagination and direct physical activity. Common features of games include uncertainty of outcome, agreed upon rules, competition, separate place and time, elements of fiction, elements of chance, prescribed goals and personal enjoyment.

Games capture the ideas and worldviews of their cultures and pass them on to the future generation. Games were important as cultural and social bonding events, as teaching tools and as markers of social status. As pastimes of royalty and the elite, some games became common features of

Wéiqí
(Go) were seen as a way to develop strategic thinking and mental skill by the political and military elite.

In his 1938 book, Homo Ludens, Dutch cultural historian Johan Huizinga argued that games were a primary condition of the generation of human cultures. Huizinga saw the playing of games as something that "is older than culture, for culture, however inadequately defined, always presupposes human society, and animals have not waited for man to teach them their playing".[4] Huizinga saw games as a starting point for complex human activities such as language, law, war, philosophy and art.

Pre-modern

Warring States (left), Tang dynasty
(right)

Some of the most common pre-historic and ancient gaming tools were made of bone, especially from the Talus bone, these have been found worldwide and are the ancestors of knucklebones as well as dice games.[5] Dice were invented at least 5,000 years ago and early dice probably did not have six sides.[6] These bones were also sometimes used for oracular and divinatory functions. Other implements could have included shells, stones and sticks.

Middle East and the Mediterranean

Board games likely originate from the ancient Near East, based on archeological findings. A series of 49 small carved painted figures found at the 5,000-year-old Başur Höyük burial mound in southeast Turkey could represent the earliest gaming pieces ever found. Similar pieces have been found in Tell Brak and Jemdet Nasr, but they were isolated.[7] Researches have called the find Dogs and Pigs.[8] The earliest board games were a pastime for the elite and were sometimes given as diplomatic gifts according to a study published in Antiquity.[9] Another possibility is that boards were reserved for the elite, but lower classes played on boards scratched into stone or on the ground. Some archeologists think that stones carved with long rows, dated between 7000 BC and 9000 BC, were used for a mancala-like game.[6]

The earliest known board games all used dice and were for two players.

Re-Horakhty.[10]
Senet may have also been used in a ritual religious context.

The

Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum (game of 12 points, also known as simply "dice", lat. "alea") may have developed from this Iranian game. The Byzantine game Tabula
is a descendant of the game of twelve points.

The other example of a board game in ancient Egypt is "

Gobustan) and Egypt (Buhen, El-Lahun, Sedment).[17][15][18][19] It was a race game for two players. The gaming board consisted of two sets of 29 holes. Ten small pegs with either jackal or dog heads were used for playing.[20] It's believed that the aim of the game was to begin at one point on the board and to reach with all figures at the other point on the board.[21]

In Ancient Greece and in the Roman Empire, popular games included ball games (Episkyros, Harpastum, Expulsim Ludere – a kind of handball), dice games (Tesserae), knucklebones, Bear games, Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), Nine men's morris (mola) and various types of board games similar to checkers. Both Plato and Homer mention board games called 'petteia' (games played with 'pessoi', i.e. 'pieces' or 'men'). According to Plato, they are all Egyptian in origin. The name 'petteia' seems to be a generic term for board game and refers to various games. One such game was called 'poleis' (city states) and was a game of battle on a checkered board.[22]

Achilles and Ajax engaged in a game of petteia, c. 540–530 BC, Vatican Museums

The Romans played a derivation of 'petteia' called 'latrunculin' or

Varro (116–27 BC) and alluded to by Martial and Ovid. This game was extremely popular and was spread throughout Europe by the Romans. Boards have been found as far as Roman Britain. It was a war game for two players and included moving around counters representing soldiers, with 'custodian' captures made by getting one of the adversary's pieces between two of one's own.[23]

After the

Turko-Mongol conqueror Timur (1336–1405), a variant of chess known as Tamerlane chess
was developed which some sources attribute to Timur himself who was known to be a fan of the game.

A Persian miniature illustrating the poem Guy-o Chawgân ("the Ball and the Polo-mallet") from the Safavid dynasty

Various games in the

Haraam (forbidden), however they are still played today in many Arab countries. Other popular games included Mancala and Tâb
.

Mameluke dynasties, whose elites favored it above all other sports. Notable sultans such as Saladin and Baybars were known to play it and encourage it in their court.[27]

Mamluk dynasty
Egypt, featuring polo sticks, coins, swords, and cups as suits.

Gallery

India

India saw a number of games in ancient period ranging from the various dice games to other board games. The use of cubical and oblong dice was common in the Indus Valley

Cowry
shells were also widely used.

Another early reference is the

race games
.

Sassanid Persia (where it was known as Shatranj) and China through the Silk Road
. It was divided into four parts called angas, which were symbolic of the four branches of an army. Just like the real ancient Indian army, it had pieces called elephants, chariots, horses and soldiers, and was played to devise war strategies.

Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati playing chaupar, ca 1694–95

The word 'checkmate' comes from the Persian term in the game, ‘shah mat’, meaning 'the king is dead'.[29] Another game named chaturaji was similar but played with four sides of differing colors instead of two, however the earliest source for this four sided board game is Al-Biruni's 'India', circa 1030 AD. Historians of chess such as Yuri Averbakh have surmised that the Greek board game petteia may have had an influence on the development of early chaturanga. Petteia games could have combined with other elements in the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms.[30][31]

The game of carrom is said to have originated in the Indian subcontinent. Though there isn't any particular proof, it is said that Indian Maharajas invented the game centuries ago. There was a finding of an ancient glass carrom board in Patiala, Punjab. Carrom gained popularity after World War I, and is still a widely popular board game in India.[32]

Adding on, the game of 'Snakes and Ladders', previously known as vaikuntapaali, was originally a Hindu game. It has been speculated that this game was already being played in India as early as the 2nd century AD. Others have credited the invention of the game to Dnyaneshwar (known also as Dnyandev), a Marathi saint who lived during the 13th century AD. This game is also known by names like gyan chaupar (meaning 'game of knowledge) or mokshapat and moksha patamu (both meaning 'way to deliverance').

The game now known as '

Akbar the Great (1556–1605). The emperor himself was a fan of the game and was known to play on a courtyard of his palace using slaves as playing pieces. Karuna Sharma of Georgia State University noted the political side of these board games played at the court.[33]

The game of

Bhāgvata Purāna, a text written in 1000 AD at the latest.[34] Several variations of tag, such as kho kho, kabaddi, atya patya, and langdi (sport),[35] are believed to be hundreds or thousands of years old (or even older as non-human animals are known to play tag[36]), with kho-kho having been played since at least the fourth century BC,[37] certain aspects of kabaddi possibly being mentioned in the Mahabharata (in or before 300 AD),[38][39] and atya-patya being mentioned in the Naṟṟiṇai (in or before 300 AD).[40]

East Asia

Agate Go pieces, Liao dynasty

The extinct Chinese board game liubo was invented no later than the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, and was popular during the Warring States period (476 BC – 221 BC) and the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).[41][42] Although the game's rules have been lost, it was apparently a race game not unlike Senet in that playing pieces were moved about a board using sticks thrown to determine movement.

four cultivated arts of the Chinese scholar gentleman, along with calligraphy, painting and playing the musical instrument guqin, and examinations of skill in those arts was used to qualify candidates for service in the bureaucracy
. Go was brought to Korea in the second century BC when the Han dynasty expanded into the Korean peninsula and it arrived in Japan in the 5th or 6th century AD and it quickly became a favorite aristocratic pastime.

Chinese Chess or Xiangqi seems to have been played during the Tang dynasty, any earlier attestation is problematic. Several Xiangqi pieces are known from the Northern Song dynasty (960–1126). It is unknown exactly how Xiangqi developed. Other traditional East Asian Chess variants include Shogi (Japan) and Janggi (Korea).

Playing cards or tiles were invented in China[46] as early as the 9th century during the Tang dynasty (618–907).[47][48][49] The earliest unambiguous attestation of paper playing cards date back to 1294.[50]

The modern game of

tile based games. What appears to have been the earliest references to gaming tiles are mentions of kwat pai, or "bone tiles", used in gambling, in Chinese writings no later than 900 AD.[51] The earliest definite references to Chinese dominoes are found in the literature of the Song dynasty (960–1279), while Western-style dominoes are a more recent variation, with the earliest examples being of early-18th century Italian design.[52] The modern tile game Mahjong is based on older Chinese card games like Khanhoo, peng hu, and shi hu.[53]

The pre-modern Chinese also played

ball games such as Cuju which was a ball and net game similar to football, and Chuiwan, which is similar to modern golf
.

Gallery

  • A pair of Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD) ceramic tomb figurines of two gentlemen playing liubo
    A pair of
    Eastern Han dynasty
    (25–220 AD) ceramic tomb figurines of two gentlemen playing liubo
  • A screen painting depicting people of the Ming dynasty playing Go, by Kanō Eitoku
    A screen painting depicting people of the Ming dynasty playing Go, by Kanō Eitoku
  • Xiangqi game pieces dated to the Song dynasty (960–1279)
    Xiangqi game pieces dated to the Song dynasty (960–1279)
  • Shogi, Go and Sugoroku; Japan, 1780.
    Shogi, Go and Sugoroku; Japan, 1780.
  • Players and observers alike absorbed in a Ssangryuk game during the Joseon era.
    Players and observers alike absorbed in a Ssangryuk game during the Joseon era.
  • Late Joseon period Ssangnyuk board game set
    Late
    Joseon period Ssangnyuk
    board game set

Africa

Pit marks supposed to be ancient Gebeta (i.e. mancala) boards in the base of an Aksumite stele, Axum, Ethiopia

The most widespread of the native African games is

Arabic word naqala:نقلة meaning literally "to move". The earliest evidence of Mancala consists of fragments of pottery boards and several rock cuts found in Aksumite in Ethiopia, Matara (now in Eritrea), and Yeha (also in Ethiopia), which have been dated by archaeologists to between the 6th and 7th century CE. More than 800 names of traditional mancala games are known, and almost 200 invented games have been described. However, some names denote the same game, while some names are used for more than one game. Today, the game is played worldwide, with many distinct variants representing different regions of the world. Some historians believe that mancala is the oldest game in the world based on the archaeological evidence found in Jordan that dates around 6000 BC. The game might have been played by ancient Nabataeans and could have been an ancient version of the modern mancala game.[54]

Americas

Macuilxochitl as depicted on page 048 of the Codex Magliabechiano

Archaeologist Barbara Voorhies has theorized that a series of holes on clay floors arranged in c shapes at the Tlacuachero archaeological site in Mexico's Chiapas state may be 5000-year-old dice-game scoreboards. If so this would be the oldest archaeological evidence for a game in the Americas.[55]

Quechua
word pichca or pisca.

One of the oldest known ball games in history is the

Aztec.[56] The game evolved over time, but the main goal was to keep a solid rubber ball in play by striking it with various parts of the body or with tools such as rackets. The game may have served as a proxy for warfare and also had a major religious function. Formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuring human sacrifice
, though it was also played for leisure by children and even women.

The indigenous North American peoples played various kinds of stickball games, which are the ancestors of modern lacrosse. Traditional stickball games were sometimes major events that could last several days. As many as 100 to 1,000 men from opposing villages or tribes would participate. The games were played in open plains located between villages, and the goals could range from 500 yards (460 m) to 6 miles (9.7 km) apart.[57]

Europe

The

Lapland.[59]

Chess was introduced to the Iberian

Dice Chess
.

An important source of medieval games is the

dice games, chess and tabula, a predecessor of backgammon. The book portrays these games within an astrological context, and some game variants are astronomically designed, such as a game titled "astronomical chess", played on a board of seven concentric circles, divided radially into twelve areas, each associated with a constellation of the Zodiac. The symbolism of the text indicates that some of these games were given metaphysical significance. Chess was also used to teach social and moral lessons by the Dominican friar Jacobus de Cessolis
in his Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium super ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'). Published circa 1300, the book was immensely popular.

Other pre-modern European board games include

Dice games were widely played throughout Europe and included hazard, chuck-a-luck, Glückshaus, shut the box and knucklebones
.

French tarot. The decks were also sometimes used for cartomancy
.

Outdoor games were very popular during holidays and fairs and were played by all classes. Many of these games are the predecessors of modern sports and

early modern
era.

Gallery

  • Hnefatafl reconstruction
    Hnefatafl reconstruction
  • Christian And Muslim playing chess. Libro de los juegos.
    Christian And Muslim playing chess. Libro de los juegos.
  • Wood carving of two youths playing ball on a misericord at Gloucester Cathedral, c. 1350.
    Wood carving of two youths playing ball on a misericord at Gloucester Cathedral, c. 1350.
  • Italian Sancai Bowl depicting a card game, mid 15th century
    Italian Sancai Bowl depicting a card game, mid 15th century
  • 'Game of Skittles', copy of 1660-68 painting by Pieter de Hooch in the Saint Louis Art Museum
    'Game of Skittles', copy of 1660-68 painting by Pieter de Hooch in the Saint Louis Art Museum
  • Medieval illustration of tabula players from the 13th century Carmina Burana.
    Medieval illustration of tabula players from the 13th century Carmina Burana.

Modern games

Professional board games

Emanuel Lasker (right) playing Steinitz for the World Chess Championship, New York 1894

Rousseau, Benjamin Franklin and Napoleon.[64]

In 1851, the

World Chess Federation (FIDE) was founded in 1924 in Paris
.

A large number of

Chess960
.

In

Japan Go Association were founded and began organizing professional tournaments. During the Qing dynasty, many Xiangqi clubs were formed and books published. The Chinese Xiangqi Association
was formed in 1962, and Xiangqi tournaments are held worldwide by national Xiangqi associations.

In 1997 the first Mind Sports Olympiad was held in London and included traditional as well as modern board games. Other board games such as Backgammon, Scrabble and Risk are also played professionally with dedicated world championships.

Commercial board games

Jain game board on cloth in the decorative arts gallery of the National Museum of India
. Acc. No. 85.312

The Ancient Indian game of

Mensch ärgere dich nicht ("Man, don't get annoyed"), became immensely popular with German troops during World War I. Another Indian game which was adopted by the West was Gyan chauper (a.k.a. Moksha Patam), popularly known as snakes and ladders. This was a game which was intended to teach lessons about karma and good and bad actions, the ladders represented virtues and the snakes vices. The moral lesson of the game was that spiritual liberation, or Moksha could only be achieved through virtuous action, while vice led to endless reincarnation. The game dates to medieval India where it was played by Jains and Hindus. A Buddhist version, known as "ascending the [spiritual] levels" (Tibetan: sa gnon rnam bzhags) is played in Nepal and Tibet[66] while a Muslim version of the game played during the mughal period from the late 17th or early 18th centuries featured the 101 names of God. The game was first brought to Victorian England and it was published in the United States as Chutes and Ladders (an "improved new version of England's famous indoor sport") by game pioneer Milton Bradley
in 1943.

The first board game for which the name of its designer is known is 'A Journey Through Europe or the Play of Geography', a map-based game published in 1759 by

Game of the District Messenger Boy
(1886) also focused on secular capitalist virtues rather than the religious.

District Messenger Boy (1886) encouraged the rags to riches
idea that a lowly messenger boy could ascend the corporate ladder to become president

First patented in 1904,

Elizabeth Magie,[68] was originally intended to illustrate the economic consequences of Ricardo's Law of Economic rent and the Georgist concept of a single tax on land value.[69] A series of board games were developed from 1906 through the 1930s that involved the buying and selling of land and the development of that land. By 1933, a board game had been created much like the version of modern Monopoly by the Parker Brothers
.

Though the first commercial version of the

dou shou qi. L'Attaque was subsequently adapted by the Chinese into Luzhanqi (or Lu Zhan Jun Qi), and by Milton Bradley into Stratego, the latter having been trademarked in 1960 while the former remains in the public domain. Jury Box, published in 1935, was the first murder mystery game which served as the basis for games like Cluedo
.

Initially designed in 1938, Scrabble received its first mass-market exposure in 1952, two years prior to the release of Diplomacy, in 1954. Diplomacy was a game favored by John F. Kennedy, and Henry Kissinger. Originally released in 1957 as La Conquête du Monde ("The Conquest of the World") in France, Risk was first published under its English title in 1959.

Starting with

wargames such as 'A distant plain', 'Labyrinth' and the satirical War on Terror have focused on counterinsurgency and contemporary terrorism
.

A concentrated design movement towards the

The Settlers of Catan, Agricola, Ticket to ride and Puerto Rico
.

Card games

Main article: Card game
British soldiers playing cards in France, 1915.

During the 15th century

gambler, and the main characters of his tale Rinconete y Cortadillo
are cheats proficient at playing ventiuna (twenty-one).

The game of

Ruff and Honours.[74][75]

Basset, both of which were very popular during the 19th century. The rules of Contract bridge
were originally published in 1925, the game having been derived from Bridge games with rules published as early as 1886, Bridge games, in turn, having evolved from the earlier game of Whist.

The first documented game of

Lausanne, Switzerland
, becoming the official governing body for poker.

Collectible card games or trading card games while bearing similarities to earlier games in concept, first achieved wide popularity in the 1990s. The first trading card game was 'The Base Ball Card Game' produced by The Allegheny Card Co. and registered on 4 April 1904. It featured 104 unique baseball cards with individual player attributes printed on the cards enabling each collector to build a team and play the game against another person.[80] The 1990s saw the rise of games such as Magic: The Gathering and the Pokémon Trading Card Game.

Miniature wargaming

Main article: Miniature wargaming
H. G. Wells playing Little Wars

Prussian army developed war games or 'kriegspieler', with staff officers moving pieces around on a game table, using dice rolls to indicate chance or "friction" and with an umpire scoring the results. After the stunning Prussian victories against Austria and France in the 19th century, the Austrians, French, British, Italians, Japanese and Russians all began to make use of wargaming as a training tool. By 1889 wargaming was firmly embedded in the culture of the U.S. Navy.[82]

The first non-military wargame rules were developed by Naval enthusiast and analyst

Space combat wargames (Full Thrust, Attack Vector: Tactical
).

Role playing games

Main article: History of role-playing games
D&D game in progress.

Early role-playing games such as those made by

TSR. The game was very successful and several other games such as the Science fiction RPG Traveller and the generic GURPS system followed in imitation. In the late 1970s TSR launched Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (AD&D) which saw an expansion of rulebooks and additions. The 80s saw several Dungeons & Dragons controversies such as the claims that the game promoted Satanism and witchcraft. Traditional Roleplaying games were the basis for the modern Role-playing video game
.

Other indoor games

In

colonial America, the game of hazard was called crapaud by the French in New Orleans (a French word meaning "toad" in reference to the original style of play by people crouched over a floor or sidewalk). This was later shortened to craps and after several adaptations became the most popular gambling dice game in the United States.[83] Sic bo was introduced into the United States by Chinese immigrants in the 20th century and is now a popular casino game. Another casino game, roulette
, has been played since the late 18th century, and was probably adapted from English wheel games such as Roly-Poly and E.O.

With the possible exception of carrom (a game whose origins are uncertain), the earliest table games appear to have been the cue sports, which include carom billiards, pool, or pocket billiards, and snooker. The cue sports are generally regarded as having developed into indoor games from outdoor stick-and-ball lawn games (retroactively termed ground billiards),[84] and as such to be related to trucco, croquet and golf, and more distantly to the stickless bocce and bowls.

tile game mahjong
developed from a Chinese card game known as mǎdiào sometime during the 17th century and was imported into the United States in the 1920s.

Outdoor games

Main article: History of sport

Modern

British empire
.

Electronic games

Main articles: Electronic game and History of video games

The earliest reference to a purely electronic game appears to be a United States patent registration in 1947 for what was described by its inventors as a "cathode-ray tube amusement device".[85] Through the 1950s and 1960s the majority of early computer games ran on university mainframe computers in the United States. Beginning in 1971, video arcade games began to be offered to the public for play. The first home video game console, the Magnavox Odyssey, was released in 1972.[86][87]

The

handheld video games
.

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  57. ^ "Lacrosse History". STX. Archived from the original on 24 May 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2007.
  58. ISBN 0-19-827401-7
    . LCCN 52-003975 OCLC 1350513, pp.56, 57.
  59. ^ Murray 1951, p. 56, Helmfrid 2005, p. 2
  60. ^ Shenk, David. The immortal game, chapter 3, 2006, Anchor Books.
  61. ^ Sonja Musser Golladay, "Los Libros de Acedrex Dados E Tablas: Historical, Artistic and Metaphysical Dimensions of Alfonso X’s Book of Games" Archived 17 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2007), 31. Although Golladay is not the first to assert that 1283 is the finish date of the Libro de Juegos, the a quo information compiled in her dissertation consolidates the range of research concerning the initiation and completion dates of the Libro de Juegos.
  62. ISBN 0-7316-5794-2
    , p. 67
  63. ^ Early Playing Cards Research. Trionfi. 2006.
  64. ^ Shenk, David. The immortal game, 2006, Anchor Books.
  65. ^ University of Waterloo Games Museum, http://gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/ Archived 6 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  66. ^ Bornet and Burger, Religions in Play: Games, Rituals, and Virtual Worlds, page 95
  67. ^ Drabble, Margaret; The Pattern in the Carpet: A Personal History with Jigsaws, page 107, 2009.
  68. ^ A U.S. patent was granted in 1904 but in the autumn of 1902 an article describing the game was published in The Single Tax Review. See http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans_blog/2011/01/lizzie-magie-1902-commentary-the-landlords-game.html
  69. ISBN 978-0-19-212998-7
    .
  70. ^ "Salvo Is New Game With a Nautical Air". The Milwaukee Journal. 1 July 1931. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  71. ^ "German recreation: An affinity for rules?" The Economist, 28 August 2008.
  72. ISSN 0261-3077
    . Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  73. ^ Waddingtons Family Card Games, Robert Harbin, Pan Books Ltd, London, 1972
  74. ISBN 0-19-869173-4
  75. ^ Pole, William (1895). The Evolution of Whist. Longmans, Green, and Co. (New York, London), 269 pages.
  76. ^ The Royal Baccarat Scandal at Tranby Croft Archived 2 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine. 10 July 2011.
  77. New York Times
    . 5 June 1891.
  78. ^ Parlett, David. Poker at parlett games. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
  79. ^ "World Series of Poker: A Retrospective". Gaming.unlv.edu. 22 October 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  80. ^ Sports Collectors Digest (7 April 2000) at 50.
  81. ^ COSTIKYAN, GREG; The Revolution Began With Paper, 2006, http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/issues/issue_42/253-The-Revolution-Began-With-Paper.2
  82. ISBN 0-7493-0011-6
    , p120
  83. ^ Rollin' Bones: The History of Dice, http://www.neatorama.com/2014/08/18/Rollin-Bones-The-History-of-Dice/
  84. ISBN 978-1-886768-06-2., [page needed
    ]
  85. ^ US 2455992, Goldsmith Jr., Thomas T. & Mann, Estle Ray, "Cathode-ray tube amusement device", published 1948-12-14, assigned to Allen B. Du Mont Laboratories Inc. 
  86. ISBN 978-1-4283-7647-2
    . In 1966, Ralph H. Baer .. pitched an idea .. to create interactive games to be played on the television. Over the next two years, his team developed the first video game system—and in 1968, they demonstrated the "Brown Box," a device on which several games could be played and that used a light gun to shoot targets on the screen. After several more years of development, the system was licensed by Magnavox in 1970 and the first game console system, the Odyssey, was released in 1972 at the then high price of $100.
  87. ^ Wolverton, Mark. "The Father of Video Games". American Heritage. Archived from the original on 16 February 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
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