Māori history

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Māori topics
Māori pattern
History
Cuisine
  • Funerals
  • Kapa haka
  • Music
  • Mythology
  • Naming customs
  • Poetry
  • Religion
  • Mātauranga Māori
  • Taha Māori
  • Tapu
  • Textiles
  • Tikanga Māori
  • Whakapapa
    		•
    Politics
    Māori Television
    Society
    Lists
    flag New Zealand portal
    Part of a series on the
    History of New Zealand
    A Māori man and a Naval officer trading, circa 1769
    Timeline
    General topics
    Prior to 1800
    19th century
    Stages of independence
    World Wars
    Post-war and contemporary history
    See also
    flag New Zealand portal

    The history of the Māori began with the arrival of

    canoes starting from the late 13th or early 14th centuries. Over time, in isolation the Polynesian settlers developed a distinct Māori culture
    .

    Early Māori history is often divided into two periods: the Archaic period (c. 1300 – c. 1500) and the Classic period (c. 1500 – c. 1769). Archaeological sites such as Wairau Bar show evidence of early life in Polynesian settlements in New Zealand. Many of the crops that the settlers brought from Polynesia did not grow well in the colder New Zealand climates. However, many native bird and marine species were hunted or collected for food, with birds, sometimes to extinction. An increasing population, competition for resources and changes to the new local climate led to the social and cultural changes seen in the Classic period. A more elaborate art form developed and a new warrior culture emerged with fortified villages, known as pa. One group of Māori settled in the Chatham Islands around 1500; they created a separate, pacifist culture and became known as the Moriori.

    The arrival of Europeans to New Zealand, starting in 1642 with Abel Tasman, brought enormous changes to the Māori, who were introduced to Western food, technology, weapons and culture by European settlers, especially from Britain. In 1840 the British Crown and many Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, allowing New Zealand to become part of the British Empire and granting Māori the status of British subjects. Initial relations between Māori and Europeans (whom the Māori called "Pākehā") were largely amicable. However, rising tensions over disputed land sales led to conflict in the 1860s and large-scale land confiscations. Social upheaval and epidemics of introduced disease also took a devastating toll on the Māori people, causing their population to decline and their standing in New Zealand to diminish.

    But by the start of the 20th century, the Māori population had begun to recover, and efforts have been made to increase their social, political, cultural and economic standing in wider New Zealand society. A protest movement gained support in the 1960s seeking redress for historical grievances. In the 2013 census, there were approximately 600,000 people in New Zealand identifying as Māori, making up roughly 15 per cent of the national population.

    Origins from Polynesia

    island-hopping voyages in the South Pacific
    .

    Evidence from genetics, archaeology, linguistics, and physical anthropology indicates that the ancestry of Polynesian people stretches all the way back to

    Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the east, and lastly New Zealand in the far south.[5]

    Analysis by Kayser et al. (2008) discovered that only 21 per cent of the Māori-Polynesian

    East Asians, than to Melanesians. The study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia relatively rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians.[7] The Polynesian population experienced a founder effect and genetic drift.[8] Evidence of an ancestral phase in the southern Philippines comes from the discovery that Polynesians share about 40 per cent of their DNA with Filipinos from this area.[4]

    Settlement of New Zealand

    See also: Archaeology of New Zealand

    In New Zealand, there are no human remains, artefacts or structures which are confidently dated to earlier than the Kaharoa Tephra, a layer of volcanic debris deposited by the Mount Tarawera eruption around 1314 CE.[9] The 1999 dating of some Polynesian rat (kiore) bones to as early as 10 CE[10] was later found to be an error. New samples of rat bone (and also of rat-gnawed shells and woody seed cases) gave dates later than the Tarawera eruption except for three which dated to a decade or so before the eruption.[11]

    Pollen evidence of widespread forest fires a decade or two before the eruption has led some scientists to speculate that humans may have lit them, in which case the first settlement date could have been somewhere in the period between 1280 and 1320 CE.[12] However, the most recent synthesis of archaeological and genetic evidence concludes that, whether or not some settlers arrived before the Tarawera eruption, the main settlement period was in the decades after it, somewhere between 1320 and 1350 CE, possibly involving a coordinated mass migration.[13] This scenario is also consistent with a much debated third line of evidence – traditional genealogies (whakapapa) which point to 1350 AD as a probable arrival date for many of the founding canoes (waka) from which many Māori trace their descent.[14][15]

    Māori oral history describes the arrival of ancestors in a number of large ocean-going waka, from Hawaiki. Hawaiki is the spiritual homeland of many eastern Polynesian societies and is widely considered to be mythical. However, a number of researchers think it is a real place – the traditionally important island of Raiatea in the Leeward Society Islands (in French Polynesia), which, in the local dialect, was called Havai'i.[16][4] Migration accounts vary among iwi, whose members may identify with several waka in their genealogies.

    With them the settlers brought a number of species which thrived: the

    dogs and rats. It is likely that other species from their homeland were also brought, but did not survive the journey or thrive on arrival.[17]

    In the last few decades, mitochondrial-DNA (mtDNA) research has allowed an estimate to be made of the number of women in the founding population, of between 50 and 100.[18][19]

    A 2022 study using radiocarbon technology from over 500 archaeological sites states that 'early Māori settlement happened in the North Island between AD 1250 and AD 1275',[20] similar to a 2010 study indicating 1280 as an arrival time.[21]

    Archaic period (c.1280–c.1500)

    An artist's rendition of a Haast's eagle attacking moa. Both species became extinct in the Archaic period.

    The earliest period of Māori settlement is known as the "Archaic", "Moahunter" or "Colonisation" period. The eastern Polynesian ancestors of the Māori arrived in a forested land with

    Shag River), evidence suggests that at least 6,000 moa were slaughtered by humans over a relatively short period of time.[23]

    Archaeology has shown that the Otago region was the node of Māori cultural development during this time, and the majority of archaic settlements were on or within 10 km (6 mi) of the coast. It was common for people to establish small temporary camps far inland for seasonal hunting. Settlements ranged in size from 40 people (e.g., Palliser Bay in Wellington) to between 300 and 400 people, with forty buildings (such as at Shag River).[24]

    Early Archaic period objects from the Wairau Bar archaeological site, on display at the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch

    The best-known and most extensively studied Archaic site is at

    Anaemia and arthritis were common. Infections such as tuberculosis (TB) may have been present, as the symptoms were present in several skeletons. On average, the adults were taller than other South Pacific people, at 170 centimetres (5 ft 7 in) for males and 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) for females.[29]

    The Archaic period is remarkable for the lack of weapons and fortifications so typical of the later "Classic" Māori,

    kohatu shag[38] becoming extinct; while others, such as kākāpō[39] and seals[40]
    were reduced in range and number.

    Work by Helen Leach shows that Māori were using about 36 different food plants, although many required detoxification and long periods (12–24 hours) of cooking. D. Sutton's research on early Māori fertility found that first pregnancy occurred at about 20 years and the mean number of births was low, compared with other neolithic societies. The low number of births may have been due to the very low average life expectancy of 31–32 years.[41] Analysis of skeletons at Wairau Bar showed signs of a hard life, with many having had broken bones that had healed.[29] This suggests that the people ate a balanced diet and enjoyed a supportive community that had the resources to support severely injured family members.

    Classic period (1500–1768)

    Model of a pā (hillfort) built on a headland. Pā proliferated as competition and warfare increased among a growing population.

    The cooling of the climate, confirmed by a detailed

    tsunamis that destroyed many coastal settlements, and the extinction of the moa and other food species. These were likely factors that led to sweeping changes in the Māori culture, which developed into the "Classic" period[43]
    that was in place at the time of European contact.

    This period is characterised by finely made

    waka taua
    ) ever made.

    Around the year 1500, a group of Māori migrated east to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands. There they adapted to the local climate and the availability of resources and developed into a people known as the Moriori,[48] related to but distinct from the Māori of mainland New Zealand. A notable feature of Moriori culture was an emphasis on pacifism. When a party of invading North Taranaki Māori arrived in 1835, few of the estimated Moriori population of 2,000 survived; they were killed outright and many were enslaved.[49]

    Early European contact (1769–1840)

    travel journal
    (1642)

    The New Zealand historian, Michael King, describes the Māori as "the last major human community on earth untouched and unaffected by the wider world".[50] Besides a brief offshore skirmish with Abel Tasman in 1642, the first encounter with the outside world took place with Captain Cook's party on his first voyage in 1769, followed by later contact in 1773 and 1777 during the second and third voyages. Cook spent time mapping the islands in 1769 and meeting Māori, particularly in the Marlborough Sounds in 1777. Cook and his crew recorded their impressions of Māori at the time. This early contact proved problematic and sometimes fatal, with some Europeans being cannibalised.[51]

    The Blowing Up of the Boyd by Louis John Steele, 1889

    From the 1780s, Māori encountered European and American

    Christian missionaries, also exposed the indigenous population to outside influences. During the Boyd Massacre in 1809, Māori took hostage and killed 66 members of the crew and passengers of the sailing ship Boyd in apparent revenge for the captain whipping the son of a Māori chief. Given accounts of cannibalism in this attack, shipping companies and missionaries kept their distance, significantly reducing their contact with the Māori for several years.[53]

    The runaways were of various standing within Māori society, ranging from slaves to high-ranking advisors. Some runaways remained little more than prisoners, while others abandoned European culture and identified as Māori. These Europeans "gone native" became known as Pākehā Māori. Many Māori valued them as a means to acquire European knowledge and technology, particularly firearms. When Whiria (Pōmare II)[54] led a war-party against Tītore in 1838, he had 131 Europeans among his warriors.[55] Frederick Edward Maning, an early settler, wrote two lively accounts of life in these times, which have become classics of New Zealand literature: Old New Zealand and History of the War in the North of New Zealand against the Chief Heke. European settlement of New Zealand increased steadily. By 1839, estimates placed the number of Europeans living among the Māori as high as 2,000, two-thirds of whom lived in the North Island, especially in the Northland Peninsula.[56]

    Between 1805 and 1840, the acquisition of

    pacifist Moriori in the Chatham Islands similarly suffered massacre and subjugation at the hands of some Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama who had fled from the Taranaki
    region.

    At the same time, the Māori suffered high mortality rates from Eurasian infectious diseases, such as

    immunity
    to the new diseases. The 1850s were a decade of relative stability and economic growth for Māori. A huge influx of European settlers in the 1870s increased contact between the indigenous people and the newcomers.

    typhoid, scarlet fever, whooping cough and almost everything, except plague and sleeping sickness, have taken their toll of Maori dead".[63]

    A korao no New Zealand; or, the New Zealander's first book was written by missionary Thomas Kendall in 1815, and is the first book written in the Māori language.

    Contact with Europeans led to a sharing of concepts. The Māori language was first written down by Thomas Kendall in 1815, in A korao no New Zealand. This was followed five years later by A Grammar and Vocabulary of the New Zealand Language, compiled by Professor Samuel Lee and aided by Kendall, and the chiefs Hongi Hika and Waikato, on a visit to England in 1820. Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[64] Between February 1835 and January 1840, William Colenso printed 74,000 Māori-language booklets from his press at Paihia. In 1843, the government distributed free gazettes to Māori called Ko Te Karere O Nui Tireni.[65] These contained information about law and crimes, with explanations and remarks about European customs, and were "designed to pass on official information to Māori and to encourage the idea that Pākehā and Māori were contracted together under the Treaty of Waitangi".[66]

    Treaty of Waitangi with the British Crown (1840)

    Main article: Treaty of Waitangi
    One of the signatories of the treaty, Hōne Heke of Ngāpuhi iwi, with his wife Hariata
    Tāmati Wāka Nene of Ngāpuhi was a signatory of the treaty, and was influential in convincing others to sign.

    Before 1840, New Zealand was an outpost of the New South Wales penal colony, not formally part of the empire and was therefore beyond the reaches of British law. With ongoing stories of increasing lawlessness and uncontrolled land speculation by British subjects reaching London, the government decided, in 1839, to intervene. It dispatched the Royal Navy captain, William Hobson, with instructions to establish sovereignty over all or part of New Zealand after negotiation with Maori, and to set up a colony. Soon after arrival, Hobson signed the Treaty of Waitangi with many North Island chiefs at Waitangi on 6 February 1840.[67] Most other chiefs from around New Zealand signed the treaty during 1840, although some refused to sign. [68] Not long after the treaty was first signed, Hobson declared British sovereignty, separately over the North Island and the South Island, and became the colony's first governor.

    The Treaty gave Māori the rights of British subjects and guaranteed Māori property rights and tribal autonomy, in return for accepting British sovereignty.[69] Considerable dispute continues over aspects of the Treaty of Waitangi. The original treaty was written mainly by James Busby and translated into Māori by Henry Williams, who was moderately proficient in Māori, and his son William, who was more skilled.[70][71] At Waitangi, the chiefs signed the Māori translation.

    Land disputes and conflict

    Main article: New Zealand Wars

    Despite conflicting interpretations of the provisions of the Treaty of Waitangi, relations between Māori and Europeans during the early colonial period were largely peaceful. Many Māori groups set up substantial businesses, supplying food and other products for domestic and overseas markets. Some of the early European settlers learned the Māori language and recorded Māori mythology, including George Grey, Governor of New Zealand from 1845 to 1855 and 1861–1868.[72]

    A portrait of Māori man, by Gottfried Lindauer, 1882
    Tāwhiao, the second Māori King

    However, rising tensions over disputed land purchases and attempts by Māori in the Waikato to establish what some saw as a rival to the British system of royalty – viz. the

    New Zealand wars
    in the 1860s. These conflicts started when rebel Māori attacked isolated settlers in Taranaki but were fought mainly between Crown troops – from both Britain and new regiments raised in Australia, aided by settlers and some allied Māori (known as kupapa) – and numerous Māori groups opposed to the disputed land sales, including some Waikato Māori.

    While these conflicts resulted in few Māori (compared to the earlier Musket wars) or European deaths, the colonial government confiscated tracts of tribal land as punishment for what were called rebellions. In some cases the government confiscated land from tribes that had taken no part in the war, although this was almost immediately returned. Some of the confiscated land was returned to both kupapa and "rebel" Māori. Several minor conflicts also arose after the wars, including the incident at Parihaka in 1881 and the Dog Tax War from 1897 to 1898.

    The Native Land Acts of 1862 and 1865 established the

    Native Land Court, which was intended to transfer Māori land from communal ownership into individual household title as a means to assimilate and to facilitate greater sales to European immigrants.[73] Māori land under individual title became available to be sold to the colonial government or to settlers in private sales. Between 1840 and 1890, Māori sold 95 per cent of their land (63,000,000 of 66,000,000 acres (270,000 km2) in 1890). In total 4 per cent of this was confiscated land, although about a quarter of this was returned. 300,000 acres was returned to Kupapa Māori mainly in the lower Waikato River Basin area. Individual Māori titleholders received considerable capital from these land sales, with some lower Waikato Chiefs being given 1000 pounds each. Disputes later arose over whether or not promised compensation in some sales was fully delivered. Some claim that later, the selling off of Māori land and the lack of appropriate skills hampered Māori participation in developing the New Zealand economy, eventually diminishing the capacity of many Māori to sustain themselves.[citation needed
    ]

    The Māori MP Henare Kaihau, from Waiuku, who was executive head of the King Movement, worked alongside King Mahuta to sell land to the government. At that time the king sold 185,000 acres per year. In 1910 the Māori Land Conference at Waihi discussed selling a further 600,000 acres. King Mahuta had been successful in getting restitution for some blocks of land previously confiscated, and these were returned to the King in his name. Henare Kaihau invested all the money, 50,000 pounds, in an Auckland land company which collapsed; all 50,000 pounds of the Kīngitanga money was lost.[74]

    In 1884 King

    Queen Victoria and try to persuade her to honour the Treaty between their peoples. He did not get past the Secretary of State for the Colonies, who said it was a New Zealand problem. Returning to New Zealand, the Premier Robert Stout insisted that all events happening before 1863 were the responsibility of the Imperial Government.[77]

    By 1891 Māori comprised just 10 per cent of the population but still owned 17 per cent of the land, although much of it was of poor quality.[78]

    Decline and revival

    Bella, a Māori woman with her husband, child and two dogs in front of their home at Whakarewarewa, 1895
    Māori woman and children playing cards on doorstep of their home, Whakarewarewa, 1895

    By the late 19th century a widespread belief existed amongst both Pākehā and Māori that the Māori population would cease to exist as a separate race or culture, and become assimilated into the European population.

    Te Rangi Hīroa (Sir Peter Buck) believed this figure was too low.[80] The figure was 42,113 in the 1896 census, by which time Europeans numbered more than 700,000.[81] Professor Ian Pool noticed that as late as 1890, 40 per cent of all female Māori children who were born died before the age of one, a much higher rate than for males.[82]

    The decline of the Māori population did not continue; it stabilised and began to recover. By 1936 the Māori figure was 82,326, although the sudden rise in the 1930s was probably due to the introduction of the family benefit, payable only when a birth was registered, according to Professor Pool. Despite a substantial level of intermarriage between the Māori and European populations, many ethnic Māori retained their cultural identity. A number of discourses developed as to the meaning of "Māori" and to who counted as Māori or not.[citation needed]

    The parliament instituted four Māori seats in 1867, giving all Māori men universal suffrage,[83] 12 years ahead of their European New Zealand counterparts. Until the 1879 general elections, men had to satisfy property requirements of landowning or rental payments to qualify as voters: owners of land worth at least £50, or payers of a certain amount in yearly rental (£10 for farmland or a city house, or £5 for a rural house). New Zealand was thus the first neo-European nation in the world to give the vote to its indigenous people.[84] While the Māori seats encouraged Māori participation in politics, the relative size of the Māori population of the time vis à vis Pākehā would have warranted approximately 15 seats.

    Sir Āpirana Ngata became instrumental in the revival of traditional arts such as kapa haka and carving.

    From the late 19th century, successful Māori politicians such as

    Maui Pomare, were influential in politics. At one point Carroll became Acting Prime Minister. The group, known as the Young Māori Party, cut across voting-blocs in Parliament and aimed to revitalise the Māori people after the devastation of the previous century. They believed the future path called for a degree of assimilation,[85] with Māori adopting European practices such as Western medicine
    and education, especially learning English.

    During the

    First World War, a Māori pioneer force was taken to Egypt but quickly was turned into a successful combat infantry battalion; in the last years of the war it was known as the "Māori Pioneer Battalion".[86] It mainly comprised Te Arawa, Te Aitanga-a-Māhaki, Te Aitanga-a-Hauiti, Ngāti Porou and Ngāti Kahungunu and later many Cook Islanders; the Waikato and Taranaki tribes refused to enlist or be conscripted.[87]

    Māori were badly hit by the

    1918 influenza epidemic when the Māori battalion returned from the Western Front. The death rate from influenza for Māori was 4.5 times higher than for Pākehā. Many Māori, especially in the Waikato, were very reluctant to visit a doctor and went to a hospital only when the patient was nearly dead. To cope with isolation, Waikato Māori, under Te Puea's leadership, increasingly returned to the old Pai Mārire (Hau hau) cult of the 1860s.[88]

    Until 1893, 53 years after the Treaty of Waitangi, Māori did not pay tax on land holdings. In 1893 a very light tax was payable only on leasehold land, and it was not till 1917 that Māori were required to pay a heavier tax equal to half that paid by other New Zealanders.[89]

    During the

    Second World War, the government decided to exempt Māori from the conscription that applied to other citizens. The Māori volunteered in large numbers, forming the 28th or Māori Battalion.[90][91] Altogether 16,000 Māori took part in the war.[92] Māori, including Cook Islanders, made up 12 per cent of the total New Zealand force. 3,600 served in the Māori Battalion,[90] the remainder serving in artillery, pioneers, home guard, infantry, airforce, and navy.[92]

    Recent history (1960s–present)

    See also: Māori renaissance
    Whina Cooper leads the Māori Land March through Hamilton in 1975, seeking redress for historical grievances.

    Since the 1960s, Māoridom has undergone a cultural revival

    Commission of Enquiry, to investigate and make recommendations on such issues, but it cannot make binding rulings; the Government need not accept the findings of the Waitangi Tribunal, and has rejected some of them.[96] Since 1976, people of Māori descent may choose to enrol on either the general or Māori roll for general elections, and may vote in either Māori or general electorates, but not both.[97]

    During the 1990s and 2000s, the government negotiated with Māori to provide redress for breaches by the Crown of the guarantees set out in the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. By 2006 the government had provided over NZ$900 million in settlements, much of it in the form of land deals. The largest settlement, signed on 25 June 2008 with seven Māori iwi, transferred nine large tracts of forested land to Māori control.[98] As a result of the redress paid to many iwi, Māori now have significant interests in the fishing and forestry industries. There is a growing Māori leadership who are using the treaty settlements as an investment platform for economic development.[27]

    Despite a growing acceptance of Māori culture in wider New Zealand society, the settlements have generated controversy. Some people have complained that the settlements occur at a level of between 1 and 2.5 cents on the dollar of the value of the confiscated lands; conversely, some denounce the settlements and socioeconomic initiatives as amounting to race-based preferential treatment. Both of these sentiments were expressed during the New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy in 2004.[99][100]

    See also

    References

    1. Stuff.co.nz
      . 24 January 2009. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
    2. PMC 1166355
      .
    3. ^ "Pacific People Spread From Taiwan, Language Evolution Study Shows". ScienceDaily. 27 January 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
    4. ^
      PMID 29379068
      .
    5. PMID 21187404
      .
    6. PMID 18179899
      .
    7. PMID 18208337
      .
    8. PMID 9671802
      .
    9. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.023
      .
    10. ISSN 0303-6758
      .
    11. ISBN 978-0-473-14476-0. Retrieved 18 January 2010. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
      )
    12. PMID 25378020
      .
    13. doi:10.1007/s10963-017-9110-y
      .
    14. ^ Roberton, J.B.W. (1956). "Genealogies as a basis for Maori chronology". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 65 (1): 45–54.
    15. ^ Te Hurinui, Pei (1958). "Maori genealogies". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 67 (2): 162–165.
    16. ^ Buck (1960)
    17. ^ Furey, Louise. "Cultigens grown by Māori". Te Ara. Retrieved 5 October 2019.
    18. ^ "Rethinking Polynesian Origins: Human Settlement of the Pacific", Michal Denny, and Lisa Matisoo-Smith
    19. ^ "Maori Migration" Archived 30 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Bernard Carpinter, NZ Science Monthly
    20. ^ "New study suggests Māori settlers arrived in Aotearoa as early as 13th century". RNZ. 8 November 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
    21. ISBN 978-0-473-14476-0
      . Retrieved 18 January 2010. Wilmshurst et al. (2008) [...] concluded that initial Polynesian settlement of New Zealand was c. 1280 AD [...].
    22. ^ Irwin (2006), pp 10–18
    23. ^ M King. Penguin History of NZ. Penguin, 2012
    24. JSTOR 124930
      . Retrieved 17 July 2021.
    25. ^ Austin, Steve (2008). "The Wairau Bar". The Prow.
    26. S2CID 134727439
      .
    27. ^ a b James, Colin (6 September 2005). "Ethnicity takes its course despite middle-class idealism". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
    28. ^ McFadgen and Adds (2018)
    29. ^
      ISBN 0140102337
      .
    30. ^ McLintock, A. H., ed. (1966). "The Moa Hunters". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
    31. ^ "Nga Kakano: 1100 – 1300", Te Papa
    32. ^ "Early human impact", Te Ara
    33. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.07.007
      .
    34. PMID 25378020
      .
    35. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.09.025
      .
    36. PMID 24639531
      .
    37. PMID 28747476
      .
    38. PMID 28803756
      .
    39. PMID 29671759
      .
    40. S2CID 4619980
      .
    41. ISBN 0340252413
    42. ^ Maclean, Chris (3 March 2009). "Creation stories and landscape – Wellington region". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
    43. ^ "Te Puawaitanga: 1500 – 1800", Te Papa
    44. ^ Neich Roger, 2001. Carved Histories: Rotorua Ngati Tarawhai Woodcarving. Auckland: Auckland University Press, pp 48–49.
    45. ^ Masters, Catherine (8 September 2007). "'Battle rage' fed Maori cannibalism". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
    46. ^ McLintock, A. H., ed. (1966). "HONGI HIKA – Ngapuhi war chief". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
    47. ^ James Cowan, The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Volume II, 1922.
    48. ^ Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Māori: The Linguistic Evidence". In Sutton, Douglas (ed.). The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123–135.
    49. ^ Davis, Denise; Solomon, Māui. "Moriori – The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
    50. ISBN 9781459623750
      .
    51. ^ Ingram, C. W. N. (1984). "New Zealand Shipwrecks 1975–1982". Auckland: New Zealand Consolidated Press; pp 3–6, 9, 12.
    52. ^ R Bennett. Treaty to Treaty. 2007. P 193.
    53. ^ "The Boyd incident". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 11 March 2014. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    54. ^ Ballara, Angela (30 October 2012). "Pomare II". Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
    55. ^ "Pakeha-Maori", New Zealand History online
    56. ^ Phillips, Jock (1 August 2015). "History of immigration – A growing settlement: 1825 to 1839". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    57. ^ McLintock, A. H., ed. (1966). "Maori Health and Welfare". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
    58. ^ Old New Zealand: being Incidents of Native Customs and Character in the Old Times by 'A Pakeha Maori' (Frederick Edward Maning), originally published 1863. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33342 chapter 3
    59. doi:10.1080/00223349708572831
      . Whole tribes sometimes relocated to swamps where flax grew in abundance but where it was unhealthy to live. Swamps were ideal places for the breeding of the TB bacillus.
    60. ^ Old New Zealand: being Incidents of Native Customs and Character in the Old Times by 'A Pakeha Maori' (Frederick Edward Maning), originally published 1863. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33342 chapter 13 "every man in a native hapu of, say a hundred men, was absolutely forced on pain of death to procure a musket and ammunition at any cost, and at the earliest possible moment (for, if they did not procure them, extermination was their doom by the hands of those of their country-men who had), the effect was that this small hapu, or clan, had to manufacture, spurred by the penalty of death, in the shortest possible time, one hundred tons of flax, scraped by hand with a shell, bit by bit, morsel by morsel, half-a-quarter of an ounce at a time."
    61. ^ Entwisle, Peter (20 October 2006). "Estimating a population devastated by epidemics". Otago Daily Times. Archived from the original on 14 October 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
    62. PMID 11630533
      .
    63. Otago University
      , PhD Thesis. pp. 82–83. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
    64. ^ Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life – Writing and publishing". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
    65. ^ "The Māori Messenger: Te Karere Māori". Retrieved 13 July 2018 – via Papers Past.
    66. ^ McMillan, Kate (20 June 2012). "Te Karere o Nui Tireni, 1842". teara.govt.nz. Retrieved 13 July 2018.
    67. ^ Orange, Claudia (20 June 2012). "Treaty of Waitangi – Creating the Treaty of Waitangi". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
    68. ^ "Te Wherowhero". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
    69. ^ Orange, Claudia (20 June 2012). "Treaty of Waitangi – Interpretations of the Treaty of Waitangi". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
    70. ^ Orange, Claudia; Williams, Bridget (1987). The Treaty of Waitangi.[page needed]
    71. ^ "Differences between the texts". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
    72. ^ Calder, Alex (22 October 2014). "George Grey's Polynesian mythology". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
    73. ^ "Māori Land – What Is It and How Is It Administered?". Office of the Auditor-General. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
    74. ^ Te Puea.M King.Reed.2003. P 59.
    75. ^ M.King, History of NZ, Penguin 2012. P41
    76. ^ "The Day the Bank was Razed", Waikato Times, Tom O'Conner, P14, Oct 2012
    77. ^ "Te Peeke o Aotearoa", NZJH
    78. ISBN 9781459623750
      .
    79. ^ King (2003), p. 224
    80. ^ Te Rangi Hiroa (Sir Peter Buck) (1949). "6 – Sickness and Health". The Coming of the Maori. Vol. III. Social Organization. p. 414.
    81. ^ "Population – Factors and Trends", An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock, published in 1966. Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 18 September 2007. Retrieved 18 September 2007.
    82. ISBN 0196479479
      , 9780196479477
    83. ^ "Māori and the Vote". Elections New Zealand. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
    84. ^ M King. Hist of New Zealand, Penguin. 2012. P 257
    85. ^ "Young Maori Party | Maori cultural association". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    86. ^ "Pioneer Battalion". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 6 April 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    87. ^ "Resistance to conscription". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 17 May 2017. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    88. ^ Te Puea. M King. Reed 2003. Pp. 77–100 "Conscription and Pai Marire."
    89. ^ Treaty of Waitangi. An explanation. NZETC. Sir Āpirana Ngata. 1922. P13
    90. ^ a b "Response to war – Māori and the Second World War". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 14 March 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    91. ^ "Story of the 28th – Desert Fighters". 28maoribattalion.org.nz. Government of New Zealand.
    92. ^ a b "Maori and the Second World War". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 5 August 2014.
    93. ^ "Māori – Urbanisation and renaissance". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. The Māori renaissance since 1970 has been a remarkable phenomenon.
    94. ^ "Time Line of events 1950–2000". Schools @ Look4.
    95. ^ "Waitangi Tribunal created". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 19 January 2017. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    96. ^ "Waitangi Tribunal's recommendations frequently ignored – UN". Scoop News. 4 April 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    97. ^ "The Origins of the Māori Seats". 31 May 2009. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
    98. ^ Tahana, Yvonne (25 June 2008). "Iwi 'walks path' to biggest ever Treaty settlement". The New Zealand Herald. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2008.
    99. ^ Report on the Crown's Foreshore and Seabed Policy (Report). Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 19 August 2019.
    100. ^ Barker, Fiona (June 2012). "Debate about the foreshore and seabed". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 19 August 2019.

    External links

    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Māori_history&oldid=1220330105"