Metallurgical Laboratory
Glenn Seaborg Eugene Wigner |
The Metallurgical Laboratory (or Met Lab) was a scientific laboratory at the University of Chicago that was established in February 1942 to study and use the newly discovered chemical element plutonium. It researched plutonium's chemistry and metallurgy, designed the world's first nuclear reactors to produce it, and developed chemical processes to separate it from other elements. In August 1942 the lab's chemical section was the first to chemically separate a weighable sample of plutonium, and on 2 December 1942, the Met Lab produced the first controlled nuclear chain reaction, in the reactor Chicago Pile-1, which was constructed under the stands of the university's old football stadium, Stagg Field.
The Metallurgical Laboratory was established as part of the Metallurgical Project, also known as the "Pile" or "X-10" Project, headed by Chicago professor
Chicago Pile-1 was soon moved by the lab to
As well as the work on reactor development, the Metallurgical Laboratory studied the chemistry and metallurgy of plutonium, and worked with
Origins
The
In April 1941, the
On 20 December, soon after the
Compton felt that having teams at Columbia, Princeton, the University of Chicago and the University of California created too much duplication and not enough collaboration, and he resolved to concentrate the work in one location. Nobody wanted to move, and everybody argued in favor of their own location. In January 1942, soon after the United States entered World War II, Compton decided to concentrate the work at his own location, the University of Chicago, where he knew he had the unstinting support of university administration,
Personnel
The new research establishment was formed in February 1942, and named the "Metallurgical Laboratory" or "Met Lab". Some real metallurgy was carried out, but the name was intended as a cover for its activities. The University of Chicago had been considering establishing a research institute into metals, and indeed would do so after the war, so its creation attracted little attention. Compton's plutonium project then became known as the Metallurgical Project.[16] The Metallurgical Laboratory was administered by the University of Chicago under contract to the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD).[17]
Over 5,000 people in 70 research groups participated in Compton's Metallurgical Project,[18][19] also known as the "Pile" or "X-10" Project,[20] of whom some 2,000 worked in the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago.[18][19] Despite the good salaries being offered, recruiting was difficult. There was competition for scientists and engineers from other defense-related projects, and Chicago was expensive compared with university towns.[21]
After the
Buildings
At first, most of the Laboratory facilities were provided by the University of Chicago. The physicists took over space under the North and West Stands of
The University of Chicago made a 0.73-acre (0.30 ha) site occupied by tennis courts available to the Manhattan District on a one dollar lease, for the construction of a new chemistry building with 20,000 square feet (1,900 m2) of space.
For reasons of safety and security, it was not desirable to locate the facilities for experiments with nuclear reactors in densely populated Chicago.
Reactor development
Chicago Pile-1
Between 15 September and 15 November 1942, groups under Herbert L. Anderson and Walter Zinn constructed sixteen experimental reactors (known at the time as "piles") under the Stagg Field stands.[32] Fermi designed a new uranium and graphite pile that could be brought to criticality in a controlled, self-sustaining nuclear reaction.[33] Construction at Argonne fell behind schedule due to Stone & Webster's difficulty recruiting enough skilled workers and obtaining the required building materials. This led to an industrial dispute, with union workers taking action over the recruitment of non-union labor.[34] When it became clear that the materials for Fermi's new pile would be on hand before the new structure was completed, Compton approved a proposal from Fermi to build the pile under the stands at Stagg Field.[35]
Construction of the reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1), began on the morning of 16 November 1942.[36] The work was carried out in twelve-hour shifts, with a day shift under Zinn and a night shift under Anderson.[37] When completed, the wooden frame supported an elliptical-shaped structure, 20-foot (6.1 m) high, 6-foot (1.8 m) wide at the ends and 25 feet (7.6 m) across the middle.[38] It contained 6 short tons (5.4 t) of uranium metal, 50 short tons (45 t) of uranium oxide and 400 short tons (360 t) of graphite, at an estimated cost of $2.7 million.[39] On 2 December 1942, it achieved the first controlled self-sustaining nuclear reaction.[40] On 12 December 1942, CP-1's power output was increased to 200 W, enough to power a light bulb. Lacking shielding of any kind, it was a radiation hazard for everyone in the vicinity. Thereafter, testing was continued at the lower power of 0.5 W.[41]
Chicago Pile-2
The operation of Chicago Pile-1 was terminated on 28 February 1943. It was dismantled and moved to Argonne,
Chicago Pile-3
A second reactor, known as Chicago Pile-3, or CP-3, was built at the Argonne site in early 1944. This was the world's first reactor to use heavy water as a neutron moderator. It had been unavailable when CP-1 was built, but was now becoming available in quantity thanks to the Manhattan Project's P-9 Project.[48] The reactor was a large aluminum tank, 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter, which was filled with heavy water, which weighed about 6.5 short tons (5.9 t). The cover was pierced by regularly spaced holes through which 121 uranium rods sheathed in aluminum projected into the heavy water. The tank was surrounded by a graphite neutron reflector, which in turn was surrounded by a lead shield, and by concrete. Shielding on the top of the reactor consisted of layers of 1-foot (30 cm) square removable bricks composed of layers of iron and masonite. The heavy water was cooled with a water-cooled heat exchanger. As well as the control rods, there was an emergency mechanism for dumping the heavy water into a tank below.[45] Construction began on 1 January 1944.[49] The reactor went critical in May 1944, and was first operated at full power of 300 kW in July 1944.[45]
During the war Zinn allowed it to be run around the clock, and its design made it easy to conduct experiments.[50] This included tests to investigate the properties of isotopes such as tritium and determine the neutron capture cross section of elements and compounds that might be used to construct future reactors, or occur in impurities. They were also used for trials of instrumentation, and in experiments to determine thermal stability of materials, and to train operators.[45][51]
Production piles
The design of the reactors for plutonium production involved several problems, not just in nuclear physics but in engineering and construction. Issues such as the long-term effect of radiation on materials received considerable attention from the Metallurgical Laboratory.[52] Two types of reactors were considered: homogeneous, in which the moderator and fuel were mixed together, and heterogeneous, in which the moderator and fuel were arranged in a lattice configuration.[53] By late 1941, mathematical analysis had shown that the lattice design had advantages over the homogeneous type, and so it was chosen for CP-1, and for the later production reactors as well. For a neutron moderator, graphite was chosen on the basis of its availability compared with beryllium or heavy water.[54]
The decision of what coolant to use attracted more debate. The Metallurgical laboratory's first choice was helium, because it could be both a coolant and a neutron moderator. The difficulties of its use were not overlooked. Large quantities would be required, and it would have to be very pure, with no neutron-absorbing impurities. Special blowers would be required to circulate the gas through the reactor, and the problem of leakage of radioactive gases would have to be solved. None of these problems were regarded as insurmountable. The decision to use helium was conveyed to DuPont, the company responsible for building the production reactors, and was initially accepted.[55]
In early 1943, Wigner and his Theoretical Group that included
The design used a thin layer of aluminum to protect the uranium from corrosion by the cooling water. Cylindrical uranium slugs with aluminum jackets would be pushed through channels through the reactor and drop out the other side into a cooling pond. Once the radioactivity subsided, the slugs would be taken away and the plutonium extracted.[58] After reviewing the two designs, the DuPont engineers chose the water-cooled one.[59] In 1959 a patent for the reactor design would be issued in the name of Creutz, Ohlinger, Weinberg, Wigner, and Young.[60]
The use of water as a coolant raised the problem of corrosion and oxidation of the aluminum tubing. The Metallurgical Laboratory tested various additives to the water to determine their effect. It was found that corrosion was minimized when the water was slightly acidic, so dilute
An important area of research concerned the Wigner effect.[63] Under bombardment by neutrons, the carbon atoms in the graphite moderator can be knocked out of the graphite's crystalline structure. Over time, this causes the graphite to heat and swell.[64] Investigation of the problem would take most of 1946 before a fix was found.[65]
Chemistry and metallurgy
Metallurgical work concentrated on uranium and plutonium. Although it had been discovered over a century before, little was known about uranium, as evidenced by the fact that many references gave a figure for its melting point that was off by nearly 500 °F (280 °C). Edward Creutz investigated it and discovered that at the right temperature range, uranium could be hammered and rolled, and drawn into the rods required by the production reactor design. It was found that when uranium was cut, the shavings would burst into flame. Working with Alcoa and General Electric, the Metallurgical Laboratory devised a method of soldering the aluminum jacket to the uranium slug.[66]
Under pressure to identify a source of processed uranium, in April 1942 Compton, Spedding and Hilberry met with Edward Mallinckrodt at his chemical company's headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri. The company devised and implemented a novel uranium processing technique using ether, submitted successful test materials by mid-May, supplied the material for the first self-sustaining reaction in December, and had satisfied the project's entire order of the first sixty tons before the contract was signed.[67]
The metallurgy of plutonium was completely unknown, for it had only recently been discovered. In August 1942, Seaborg's team chemically isolated the first weighable amount of plutonium from uranium irradiated in the Jones Laboratory.[68][69] Until reactors became available, minuscule amounts of plutonium were produced in the cyclotron at Washington University in St. Louis.[70] The chemistry division worked with DuPont to develop the bismuth phosphate process used to separate plutonium from uranium.[49]
Health and safety
The dangers of radiation poisoning had become well known due to the experience of the
The Metallurgical Laboratory's Health Division set standards for radiation exposure. Workers were routinely tested at University of Chicago clinics, but this could be too late. Personal
Later activities
During 1943 and 1944, the Metallurgical Laboratory focused on first getting the X-10 Graphite Reactor at the Clinton Engineer Works up and running, and then the B Reactor at the Hanford Site. By the end of 1944, the focus had switched to training operators. Much of the chemistry division moved to Oak Ridge in October 1943,[49] and many personnel were transferred to other Manhattan Project sites in 1944, particularly Hanford and Los Alamos. Fermi became a division head at Los Alamos in September 1944, and Zinn became the director of the Argonne Laboratory. Allison followed in November 1944, taking with him many of the Metallurgical Laboratory's staff, including most of the instrument section. He was replaced by Joyce C. Stearns.[75] Farrington Daniels,[76] who became associate director on 1 September 1944,[75] succeeded Stearns as director on 1 July 1945.[77]
Where possible, the University of Chicago attempted to re-employ workers who had been transferred from the Metallurgical Laboratory to other projects once their work had ended.[22] Replacing staff was nearly impossible, as Groves had ordered a staffing freeze. The only division to grow between November 1944 and March 1945 was the health division; all the rest lost 20 percent or more of their staff.[75] From a peak of 2,008 staff on 1 July 1944, the number of people working at the Metallurgical Laboratory fell to 1,444 on 1 July 1945.[26]
The end of the war did not end the flow of departures. Seaborg left on 17 May 1946, taking much of what remained of the chemistry division with him. On 11 February 1946, the Army reached an agreement with University President
Payments made to the University of Chicago under the original 1 May 1943 non-profit contract totaled $27,933,134.83, which included $647,671.80 in construction and remodeling costs. The contract expired on 30 June 1946, and was replaced by a new contract, which ended on 31 December 1946. A further $2,756,730.54 was paid under this contract, of which $161,636.10 was spent on construction and remodeling. An additional $49,509.83 was paid to the University of Chicago for the restoration of its facilities.[83]
In 1974, the United States government began cleaning up the old Manhattan Project sites under the
Notes
- ^ Rhodes 1986, pp. 256–263.
- ^ Jones 1985, pp. 8–10.
- ^ The Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt". Archived from the original on 27 October 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2007.
- ^ The Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Pa, this requires action!". Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2007.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 36–38.
- ^ a b Anderson 1975, p. 82.
- ^ Salvetti 2001, pp. 192–193.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 46–49.
- ^ Compton 1956, pp. 72–73.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 50–51.
- ^ a b Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 180–181.
- ^ a b Rhodes 1986, pp. 399–400.
- ^ Anderson 1975, p. 88.
- ^ Compton 1956, p. 80.
- ^ Compton 1956, p. 82.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, p. S2.
- ^ a b c d Compton 1956, p. 83.
- ^ a b Jones 1985, p. 636.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947a, pp. S2–S5, 1.1.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, pp. 24–25.
- ^ a b Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 25.
- ^ Compton 1956, pp. 127–131.
- ^ a b Manhattan District 1947b, p. 2.1.
- ^ a b Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, pp. 21–22.
- ^ a b Manhattan District 1947b, p. 7.2.
- ^ a b Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 2.3–2.5.
- ISSN 0096-3402. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 2.7–2.8.
- ^ a b Jones 1985, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, p. 2.6.
- ^ Anderson 1975, p. 91.
- ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 429.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 15.
- ^ Compton 1956, pp. 136–137.
- ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 433.
- ^ Anderson 1975, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 16.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, pp. 16–17.
- ^ "CP-1 Goes Critical". Department of Energy. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, p. 3.9.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 23.
- ^ "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Chicago Pile 1". Argonne National Laboratory. 21 May 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ "Atoms Forge a Scientific Revolution". Argonne National Laboratory. 10 July 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ a b c d Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 3.13–3.14.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 428.
- JSTOR 3301034.
- ^ Waltham 2002, pp. 8–9.
- ^ a b c Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 26.
- ^ McNear, Claire (5 March 2009). "The Way Things Work: Nuclear waste". The Chicago Maroon. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
- ^ Wattenberg 1975, p. 173.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 2.6–2.7.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 3.4–3.5.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 3.9–3.11.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 3.14–3.15.
- ^ Szanton 1992, pp. 217–218.
- ^ Weinberg 1994, pp. 22–24.
- ^ Compton 1956, p. 167.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, p. 3.16.
- ^ Hinman, George; Rose, David (2010). Edward Chester Creutz 1913–2009 (PDF). Biographical Memoirs. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ a b Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 4.5–4.7.
- ^ Smyth 1945, pp. 146–147.
- .
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 5.1–5.2.
- ^ Hansen 1995, pp. 213–215.
- ^ Compton 1956, p. 175.
- ^ "The Mallinckrodt Chemical Works Story" (PDF). atomic heritage. Mallincrkodt Chemical (1962). Retrieved 8 March 2020.
- doi:10.2172/7110621.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 14.
- ^ Compton 1956, p. 176.
- ^ Compton 1956, pp. 180–181.
- ^ Hacker 1987, pp. 34–37.
- ^ Hacker 1987, pp. 40–42.
- ^ Hacker 1987, pp. 53–55.
- ^ a b c Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, pp. 29–30.
- ^ a b Manhattan District 1947b, p. 7.1.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 35.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 40.
- ^ a b Koppes, Steve. "How the First Chain Reaction Changed Science". The University of Chicago. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
- ^ Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997, p. 46.
- ^ Jones 1985, p. 600.
- ^ Groves 1962, pp. 394–398.
- ^ Manhattan District 1947b, pp. 2.2–2.3.
- ^ McNear, Claire (5 March 2009). "The Way Things Work: Nuclear waste". The Chicago Maroon. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
- ^ "FUSRAP Stakeholder Report" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. May 2013. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
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