Military of the Ottoman Empire

The earliest form of the Ottoman military was a steppe-nomadic cavalry force.[7] This was centralized by Osman I from Turkoman tribesmen inhabiting western Anatolia in the late 13th century.

These horsemen became an irregular force of raiders used as shock troops, armed with weapons like bows and spears. They were given fiefs called timars in the conquered lands, and were later called timariots. In addition they acquired wealth during campaigns.

The Ottomans began using guns in the late 14th century. Following that, other troop types began to appear, such as the regular musketeers (Piyade Topçu, literally "foot artillery"); regular cavalry armed with firearms (Süvari Topçu Neferi, literally "mounted artillery soldier"), similar to the later European reiter or carabinier; and bombardiers (Humbaracı), consisting of grenadiers who threw explosives called khımbara and the soldiers who served the artillery with maintenance and powder supplies.

The Ottoman Empire was the first of the three Islamic

The musket first appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.^[17] Damascus steel was later used in the production of firearms such as the musket from the 16th century.^[18] At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 muskets "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest."^[19] The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing.^[20] In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets.^[21]

The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.^[22]

Classical period (1451–1606)

Agha of the Janissaries

Sipahi horse-archer

Head cook of a Janissary regiment

The main theme of this period is reforming the Janissaries. The Janissary corps were originally made up of enslaved young Christian boys, generally from the western Balkans, who were forced to convert to Islam^[23] and were educated in military matters under the Ottoman Empire. During the 15th and 16th Centuries they became known as the most efficient and effective military unit in Europe.^{[citation needed]} By 1570 born Muslims were accepted into the Janissaries corps and by the 17th century most would be born Muslims. According to Jason Goodwin in the 17th and 18th centuries most Janissaries were Muslim Albanians.

Aside from the Janissary infantry, there was also the Sipahi Cavalry. They were, however, different from the Janissaries in that they had both military and administrative duties. The Janissaries were tied strictly to being able to perform military duties at any time, however the Sipahi were treated differently primarily in that they got their income from the land that was given to them from the Sultan under the timariot system. Within these agricultural lands, the Sipahi were in charge of collecting the taxes which would serve as their salary. At the same time they were responsible for maintaining peace and order there. They were also expected to be able to serve in the military whenever the Sultan deemed their service necessary.^[24]

In 1621, the Chinese

The Ottoman Empire made numerous efforts to recruit French experts for its modernization. The French officer and adventurer

Bosphorus and started a naval science course that laid the foundation stone for the later Turkish Naval Academy.^[27]

He could only achieve limited success, however. Unfortunately it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home.

When they had requested French help in 1795, young

Napoleon Bonaparte was scheduled to be sent to Constantinople to help organize Ottoman artillery. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob at 13 Vendémiaire and was kept in France.^[28][29]

The supply of Ottoman forces operating in Moldavia and Wallachia was a major challenge that required well organized logistics. An army of 60,000 soldiers and 40,000 horses required a half-million kilograms of food per day. The Ottoman forces fared better than the Russians, but the expenses crippled both national treasuries. Supplies on both sides came using fixed prices, taxes, and confiscation.[30]

Sultan

Janissaries, who had largely lost their military effectiveness. Selim closely followed Western military forms. It would be expensive for a new army, so a new treasury ['Irad-i Cedid'] was established . The result was the Porte now had an efficient, European-trained army equipped with modern weapons. However it had fewer than 10,000 soldiers in an era when Western armies were ten to fifty times larger. Furthermore, the Sultan was upsetting the well-established traditional political powers. As a result, it was rarely used, apart from its use against Napoleon's expeditionary force at Gaza and Rosetta. The new army was dissolved by reactionary elements with the overthrow of Selim in 1807, but it became the model of the new Ottoman Army created later in the 19th century.^[31][32]

Units of Reform efforts (1606–1826)

Efforts for a new system (1826–1858)

Main articles: Auspicious Incident and Ottoman military reforms

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

The main theme of this period is disbanding the Janissary, which happened in 1826, and changing the military culture. The major event is "Vaka-ı Hayriye" translated as Auspicious Incident. The military units formed were used in the Crimean War, Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), and Greco-Turkish War (1897).

The failed efforts of a new system dates before 1826. Sultan Selim III formed the

Nizam-ı Cedid

army (Nizam-ı Cedid meaning New Order) in the late 18th century and early 19th century. This was the first serious attempt to transform the Ottoman military forces into a modern army. However, the Nizam-ı Cedid was short lived, dissolving after the abdication of Selim III in 1807.

Sultan Mahmud II, Selim III's successor and nephew, who was a great reformer, disbanded the Janissaries in 1826 with so-called known as "Vaka-ı Hayriye" (the auspicious incident).

The Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye was established, as a contemporary modern army.

Egypt, as part of the empire, also underwent drastic military changes during Muhammad Ali Pasha's reign. The two largest military reforms were the effective practices of indoctrination and surveillance, which dramatically changed the way the military was both conducted by the leadership and also perceived by the rest of society. New military law codes resulted in isolation, extreme surveillance, and severe punishments to enforce obedience. The Pasha's goal was to create a high regard for the law and strict obedience stemming from sincere want. This shift from direct control by bodily punishment to indirect control through strict law enforcement aimed to make the soldiers' lives predictable, thus creating a more manageable military for the Pasha.

Units of Modernization (1826–1858)

Infantry unit

Artillery unit

Commissioned Officers

Modern Army (1861–1918)

Main article: Ottoman Army (1861–1922)

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

The main theme of this period is organizing and training the newly formed units. The change of French system to German system occurred as the German military mission was most effective during the period. The military units formed were used in the Balkan Wars and World War I.

The shift from Classical Army (1451–1606) took more than a century beginning from failed attempts of Selim III (1789) to a period of Ottoman military reforms (1826–1858) and finally Abdulhamid II. Abdulhamid II, as early as 1880 sought, and two years later secured, German assistance, which culminated in the appointment of Lt. Col. Kohler. However. Although the consensus that Abdulhamid favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer corps was fairly general, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, and he also cut down the military budget. The formation of Ottoman Modern Army was a slow process with ups and downs.

Combatant branches

Artillery (Howitzer)

Cavalry

Infantry (WW1)

Infantry (pre-war)

Non-combatant branches

Engineering (Heliograph)

Communication (Telephone)

Medical (Field Hospital)

Equipment

Uniform, standard

Uniform, winter

Commissioned Officers

Uniform, summer

Uniform, standard

Navy

Main article: Ottoman Navy

The

expedition to Indonesia

in 1565.

For much of its history, the Navy was led by the position of the

replaced by the Minister of the Navy (Turkish: Bahriye Nazırı) and a number of Fleet Commanders (Turkish

: Donanma Komutanları).

After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Navy's tradition was continued under the

Republic of Turkey

in 1923.

Ottoman Navy

Battle of Zonchio in 1499

Mahmudiye, 1829

Silhouettes of the warships of the Ottoman Navy, as projected for 1914

Naval Commissioned Officers (WW1)

Seaman (pre-war)

Seaman (WW1)

Aviation

Main article: Ottoman Aviation Squadrons

The

pilots; 17 land-based airplane companies (4 planes each); and 3 seaplane companies

(4 planes each); totalling 80 aircraft.

Ottoman Aviation Squadrons

Air Base Yesilkoy 1911

Pilots, 1912

Naval Flight Squadron

Personnel

Recruitment

Main article: Conscription in the Ottoman Empire

In 1389 the Ottomans introduced a system of military conscription. In times of need every town,

The Ottoman Military College in Istanbul was the Ottoman Empire's two-year military staff college, which aimed to educate staff officers for the Ottoman Army.

Ottoman Military Academy

Marshal Ahmed Fevzi Pasha together with Mehmed Namık Pasha formed the academy in 1834 as the Mekteb-i Harbiye (Ottoman Turkish: lit. "War School"), and the first class of officers graduated in 1841. This foundation occurred in the context of military reforms within the Ottoman Empire, which recognized the need for more educated officers to modernize its army. The need for a new military order was part of the reforms of Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839), continued by his son Sultan Abdulmejid I (r. 1839–1861).

After the demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as

Imperial Naval Engineering School

The origin of the Naval Academy goes back to 1773, when Sultan

Classic Army

• company
  ) and an "ocak" (troop) respectively.
• captain
  .
• Çorbacı (Turkish for "soup server") was a commander of an orta (regiment), approximately corresponding to the rank of colonel (Turkish: Albay) today. In seafaring, the term was in use for the boss of a ship's crew, a role similar to that of boatswain
  .

The system of ranks and insignia followed the patterns of the German Empire.^{[citation needed]}

• Nefer (Private)
• Onbaşı (Corporal)
• Çavuş (Sergeant)
• Başçavuş (Sergeant major)
• Mülazım-ı Sani (Second lieutenant)
• Mülazım-ı Evvel (First lieutenant)
• Yüzbaşı (Captain)
• Kolağası
  (Senior Captain or Adjutant Major)
• Binbaşı (Major
  )
• Kaymakam (Lieutenant colonel)
• Miralay (Colonel) – commander of a regiment (alay)
• Mirliva – commander of a brigade (liva)
• Ferik – commander of a division (firka)
• Birinci Ferik – commander of a corps (Kolordu)
• Müşir (Field marshal
  ) – commander of an army (Ordu)

Notes: [1][a] |[2]|^[b]|[3]^[c]

Awards and decorations

The

• Ottoman military reforms
• Turkish Armed Forces
• Turkish Land Forces
• Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire
• Special Organization (Ottoman Empire)

Notes

References

Bibliography and further reading

• Ágoston, Gábor (2005). Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 978-0521843133
  .
• Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present (1986 and other editions), passim and 1463–1464.
• S2CID 159817669
  .
• Erickson, Edward J.
  Ordered to die: a history of the Ottoman army in the First World War
  (2001)
• Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
• Har-El, Shai (1995). Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485–91. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
  ISBN 978-9004101807
  .
• JSTOR 544368
  .
• Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
• Murphey, Rhoads (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. Rutgers University Press.
  ISBN 978-0813526850
  .
• ISBN 0-521-30358-3
  .
• Pálosfalvi, Tamás. From Nicopolis to Mohács: A History of Ottoman-Hungarian Warfare, 1389–1526 (Brill, 2018)
• Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Philadelphia: Westview Press.
  ISBN 978-0813313597
  .
• Topal, Ali E. "The effects of German Military Commission and Balkan wars on the reorganization and modernization of the Ottoman Army" (Naval Postgraduate School 2013) online
• Uyar, Mesut, and Edward J. Erickson. A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk (Pleager Security International, 2009).

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Military of the Ottoman Empire.

• "Turkey Prepares for War 1913–1914" by Lt. Col. Edward J. Erickson
• Turkey in World War I
• History of the Ottoman Military Music