Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Ottoman_miniature_of_the_Capture_of_Morocco_commanded_by_Ramazan_Pasha.jpg/220px-Ottoman_miniature_of_the_Capture_of_Morocco_commanded_by_Ramazan_Pasha.jpg)
The foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire were characterized by competition with the Persian Empire to the east, Russia to the north, and Austria to the west. The control over European minorities began to collapse after 1800, with Greece being the first to break free, followed by Serbia. Egypt was lost in 1798–1805. In the early 20th century Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence soon followed. The Ottomans lost nearly all their European territory in the First Balkan War (1912–1913). The Ottoman Empire allied itself with the Central Powers in the World War I, and was defeated. During the war, the British successfully mobilized Arab nationalism, and the Ottoman Empire thereby lost its Arab possessions, and itself soon collapsed in the early 1920s.
Structure
The Ottoman Empire's diplomatic structure was unconventional and departed in many ways from its European counterparts. Traditionally, foreign affairs were conducted by the Reis ül-Küttab (Chief Clerk or Secretary of State) who also had other duties. In 1836, a Foreign Ministry was created.[1]
Finance
After 1600, wars were increasingly expensive and the Empire never had an efficient system of taxation.[2] The Porte relied on loans from merchants and tax farming, whereby local; elites collected taxes (and kept their share). The winner in a war acquired new territory—the local leadership usually stayed the same, only they now collected taxes for the winning government. The war's loser often paid cash reparations to the winner, who thereby recouped the cost of the war.[3]
Ambassadors
Ambassadors from the Ottoman Empire were usually appointed on a temporary and limited basis, as opposed to the resident ambassadors sent by other European nations.[4][5] The Ottomans sent 145 temporary envoys to Venice between 1384 and 1600.[6] The first resident Ottoman ambassador was not seen until Yusuf Agah Efendi was sent to London in 1793.[4][7]
Ambassadors to the Ottoman Empire began arriving shortly after the fall of Constantinople. The first was Bartelemi Marcello from Venice in 1454. The French ambassador Jean de La Forêt later arrived in 1535.[8] In 1583, the ambassadors from Venice and France would attempt unsuccessfully to block English diplomat William Harborne from taking up residence in Istanbul. This move was repeated by Venice, France and England in trying to block Dutch ambassador Cornelius Haga in 1612.[9]
Capitulations
Capitulations were trade deals with other countries. They were a unique practice of Muslim diplomacy that was adopted by Ottoman rulers. In legal and technical terms, they were unilateral agreements made by the Sultan to a nation's merchants. These agreements were temporary, and subject to renewal by subsequent Sultans.
In June 1580 came the first capitulatory agreement with England. The English acquired privileges formerly limited to France and Venice. The Porte broadened English extraterritorial rights by successive renewals and expansions (in 1603, 1606, 1624, 1641, 1662, and 1675).
The Ottoman-French Treaty of 1740 marked the apogee of French influence in the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century. In the following years the French had an unchallenged position in Levant trade and in transportation between Ottoman ports. Near contemporary Ottoman capitulations to European powers such as Great Britain and the Dutch Republic in 1737, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1740, Denmark–Norway in 1756 and Prussia in 1761 were to offset and balance the capitulations granted to France in 1740.[12]
Military organization
Sultan
1200–1500
c. 1250, the Seljuk Turks were overwhelmed by a Mongol invasion, and they lost control of Anatolia. By 1290, Osman I established supremacy over neighboring Turkish tribes, forming the start of the Ottoman Empire. The Byzantine Empire was shrinking, but it held tenaciously onto its capital at Constantinople.[15]
The Ottoman domain became increasingly powerful and by 1400 was a crucial part of the European states system and actively played a role in their affairs, due in part to their coterminous periods of development.[16][17] In 1413–1421, Mehmed I "The Restorer" reestablished central authority in Anatolia. He expanded the Ottoman presence in Europe by the conquest of Wallachia in 1415. Venice destroyed the Ottoman fleet of Gallipoli in 1416, as the Ottomans lost a naval war. In the reign of Murad II (1421–1451) there were successful naval wars with Venice and Milan. The Byzantine Empire lost virtually all its territory in Anatolia. However, the Ottomans failed in their attempted invasions of Serbia and Hungary; they besieged Constantinople. Christians from Central Europe launch the last Crusade in 1443–1444, pushing the Ottomans out of Serbia and Wallachia. This Crusade ended in defeat when the Ottomans were victorious at Varna in November 1444.[18]
1500–1800
Ottoman policy towards Europe during the 16th century was one of disruption against the Habsburg dynasties. The Ottomans collaborated with Francis I of France and his Protestant allies in the 1530s while fighting the Habsburgs.[16] Although the French had sought an alliance with the Ottomans as early as 1531, one was not concluded until 1536. The sultan then gave the French freedom of trade throughout the empire, and plans were drawn up for an invasion of Italy from both the north and the south in 1537.[23]
Selim I
The most dramatic successes came during the short reign of Selim I (1513– 1520), as Ottoman territories were nearly doubled in size after decisive victories over the Persians and Egyptians. Selim I defeated the
- Mughals
Suleiman the Magnificent
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Francois_I_Suleiman.jpg/220px-Francois_I_Suleiman.jpg)
Selim I's son Suleiman I became known as "Suleiman the Magnificent" for his long string of military conquests[28][29] Suleiman consolidated Ottoman possessions in Europe and made the Danube the undisputed northern frontier.[30]
The decisive Ottoman victory came at the Battle of Mohács in 1526. The forces of the Kingdom of Hungary and its allies, led by Louis II was defeated by Suleiman's army. The result was the three-way partition of Hungary for several centuries between the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg Monarchy, and the Principality of Transylvania. Louis II was killed, thus ending the Jagiellonian dynasty in Hungary and Bohemia. Its dynastic claims passed to the House of Habsburg.
Suleiman selected cooperative local leaders in the newly acquired Wallachian, Moldavian, and Transylvanian Christian territories. The role was to keep the peace, collect taxes, and in turn were protected by the Porte. Later sultans considered replacing these tributary princes with Ottoman Muslim governors but did not do so for political, military, and financial reasons.[31] Suleiman's successes frightened the Europeans, but he failed to move north of the Danube, failed to take Vienna, failed to conquer Rome, and was unable to gain a foothold in Italy.[24] The defeats meant that the Ottoman Empire could not take advantage of the intellectual and technical advances made in Western Europe. Instead Suleiman's empire while large, failed to keep pace with the rapid advances taking place in Europe.[32] According to John Norton, additional weaknesses of Suleiman included his conscription of Christian children, maltreatment of subject peoples, and obsession with his own prestige.[33]
The Dutch allied with the Ottomans. Prince William of Orange coordinated his strategic moves with those of the Ottomans during Ottoman negotiations with Philip II of Spain in the 1570s.[16] After the Habsburgs inherited the Portuguese crown in 1580, Dutch forces attacked their Portuguese trading rivals while the Ottomans, supportive of the Dutch bid for independence, attacked the Habsburgs in Eastern Europe.[34]
India, China, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia
In the 16th century, there emerged travelogues of both Ottoman travelers to
The first exchange of diplomatic missions between the
The Inner Eurasian Muslim khanates of Kazan, Khwarazm, and Bukhara were wary of Russian expansion and looked to the Ottomans for the maintenance of Silk Road contacts. With this purpose in mind, the Ottomans began to dig out a Volga-Don canal, but quickly stopped after realizing its infeasibility. Nonetheless, the Russians agreed to grant Central Asian Muslim pilgrims safe passage into Ottoman territories after the First Russo-Turkish War.[45] In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Uzbeks and Ottomans launched semi-coordinated military offensives against Iran.
During the
Africa
The Ottomans spread the use of firearms into Morocco and Bornu, but Bornu and Morocco later allied against the Ottomans. The Ajuran and Adal Sultanates both allied with the Ottomans against the Portuguese and Ethiopians, as well as the Swahilis, while the Funj Sultanate saw the Ottomans as a threat.
Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)
The small-scale inconclusive war with Russia in 1676–1681 was a defensive move by Russia after the Ottomans expanded into
Great Turkish War: 1683–1699
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/OttomanEmpire1683.png/350px-OttomanEmpire1683.png)
The
Wars with Russia, 1768–1774
Following a border incident at Balta, Sultan Mustafa III declared war on Russia on 25 September 1768. The Ottoman formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of the Bar Confederation, while Russia was supported by Great Britain, which offered naval advisers to the Imperial Russian Navy.[52][53]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Chesmabattle.jpg/250px-Chesmabattle.jpg)
The Polish opposition was defeated by
Naval operations of the
On 21 July 1774, the defeated Ottomans signed the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which formally granted independence to the Crimean Khanate; in reality it became dependent on Russia. Russia received 4.5 million rubles and two key seaports allowing the direct access to the Black Sea.[56]
The supply of Ottoman forces operating in Moldavia and Wallachia was a major challenge that required well organized logistics. An army of 60,000 soldiers and 40,000 horses required a half-million kilograms of food per day. The Ottoman forces fared better than the Russians, but the expenses crippled both national treasuries. Supplies on both sides came using fixed prices, taxes, and confiscation.[57]
19th century
As the 19th century progressed, the Ottoman Empire grew weaker and the
Selim III
Selim III (1789–1807) in 1789 found that the Empire had been considerably reduced due to conflicts outside the realm. From the north Russia had taken the Black Sea through the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774. Selim realized the importance of diplomatic relations with other nations, and pushed for permanent embassies in the courts of all the great nations of Europe, a hard task because of religious prejudice towards Muslims. Even with the religious obstacles, resident embassies were established in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna.[61] Selim, a cultured poet and musician, carried on an extended correspondence with Louis XVI of France. Although distressed by the establishment of the republic in France, Ottoman government was soothed by French representatives in Constantinople who maintained the goodwill of various influential personages.[62][63]
In July 1798, however, French forces under Napoleon landed in
Loss of Egypt: 1798–1805
The brief
Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)
French influence with the Sublime Porte led the Sultan into defying both St. Petersburg and London, and instead joined
Greek War of Independence 1821–1830
The Greek War of Independence was a successful uprising waged by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1830. The Greeks were factionalized and fought their own civil war. The Greeks won widespread support from elite opinion in Europe, and were aided militarily and diplomatically by Britain, France and Russia. The Ottomans were aided militarily by Egypt.[69][70]
Greece came under Ottoman rule in the late 15th century. During the following centuries, there were sporadic but unsuccessful Greek uprisings against Ottoman rule. In 1814, a secret organization called Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece, encouraged by the revolutionary fervor gripping Europe in that period. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities, and Constantinople itself, which had a large Greek element. The first revolt began on 6 March/21 February 1821 in the Danubian Principalities, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. The events in the north urged the Greeks in the Peloponnese (Morea) into action and on 17 March 1821, the Maniots were first to declare war. In September 1821, the Greeks under the leadership of Theodoros Kolokotronis captured Tripolitsa. Revolts in Crete, Macedonia, and Central Greece broke out, but were eventually suppressed. Meanwhile, makeshift Greek fleets achieved success against the Ottoman Navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea.
Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. The
At that point, the three Great Powers—Russia, Britain and France—decided to intervene, sending their naval squadrons to Greece in 1827. Following news that the combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleet was going to attack the island of
Serbian Revolution and Autonomous Principality (1804–1878)
Serbia gained considerable internal autonomy from the
Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)
The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 was sparked by the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1829. War broke out after the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II closed the Dardanelles to Russian ships and revoked the 1826 Akkerman Convention in retaliation for Russian participation in October 1827 in the Battle of Navarino. The imminent Russian victory led to the signing of the Treaty of Adrianople, which allowed for Russian occupation of the Danubian Principalities and resulted in the Ottoman Empire's recognition of Greece.
Persian Gulf
Britain planned to establish bases in the
The Ottoman government was concerned about British expansion from
Financial crisis
Economic stagnation prevailed in Ottoman lands areas in the 1840s and 1850s at a time when rapid industrialization characterized Britain and Western Europe—areas that also expanded their commerce in the Levant. The Porte had serious economic problems—stagnant tax revenue, inflation, growing expenses. Despite the sultan's fear of British penetration, it borrowed heavily from banks in Paris and London and did not set up its own banks.[75]
Crimean War 1854–56
The Crimean War (1854–56) was fought between Russia on the one hand and an alliance of Britain, France, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. Russia was defeated but the casualties were very heavy on all sides, and historians look at the entire episode as a series of blunders.[76][77]
The war began with Russian demands to protect Christian sites in the Holy Land. The churches quickly settled that problem, but it escalated out of hand as Russia put continuous pressure on the Ottomans. Diplomatic efforts failed. The Sultan declared war against Russia in October 1851. Following an Ottoman naval disaster in November, Britain and France declared war against Russia.[78] It proved quite difficult to reach Russian territory, and the Royal Navy could not defeat the Russian defences in the Baltic. Most of the battles took place in the Crimean peninsula, which the Allies finally seized. London, shocked to discover that France was secretly negotiating with Russia to form a postwar alliance to dominate Europe, dropped its plans to attack St. Petersburg and instead signed a one-sided armistice with Russia that achieved almost none of its war aims.
The Treaty of Paris signed 30 March 1856, ended the war. Russia gave up a little land and relinquished its claim to a protectorate over the Christians in the Ottoman domains. The Black Sea was demilitarized, and an international commission was set up to guarantee freedom of commerce and navigation on the Danube River. Moldavia and Wallachia remained under nominal Ottoman rule, but would be granted independent constitutions and national assemblies. However, by 1870, the Russians had regained most of their concessions.[79]
The war helped modernize warfare by introducing major new technologies such as railways, the telegraph, and modern nursing methods. The Ottoman Empire and Russia, with their weak industrial bases, could not keep up with the major powers, so they could no longer promote stability. This opened the way for Napoleon III in France and Otto von Bismarck in Prussia to launch a series of wars in the 1860s that reshaped Europe.[80]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Balkans1912.jpg/300px-Balkans1912.jpg)
Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
The
A surprising consequence came in Hungary (part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). Despite memories of the terrible defeat at Mohács in 1526, elite Hungarian attitudes were become strongly anti-Russian This led to active support for the Ottomans in the media, but only in a peaceful way, since the foreign policy of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy remained neutral.[82]
British takeover of Egypt, 1882
The most decisive event emerged from the
- The British occupation of Egypt altered the balance of power. It not only gave the British security for their route to India; it made them masters of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East; it made it unnecessary for them to stand in the front line against Russia at the Straits....And thus prepared the way for the Franco-Russian Alliance ten years later.[85]
20th century
In 1897 the population was 19 million, of whom 14 million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20 million lived in provinces which remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.[86]
Entry in to World War I
Germany for years had worked to develop closer ties to the Ottoman Empire. In 1914, the old Ottoman enemy Russia was at war with Germany and Austria-Hungary, and Constantinople distrusted London for its role in Egypt.
There were a number of factors that conspired to influence the Ottoman government, and encourage them into entering the war. According to Kemal Karpat:
- Ottoman entry into the war was not the consequence of careful preparation and long debate in the parliament (which was recessed) and press. It was the result of a hasty decision by a handful of elitist leaders who disregarded democratic procedures, lacked long-range political vision, and fell easy victim to German machinations and their own utopian expectations of recovering the lost territories in the Balkans. The Ottoman entry into war prolonged it for two years and allowed the Bolshevik revolution to incubate and then explode in 1917, which in turn profoundly impacted the course of world history in the 20th century.[89]
This decision ultimately led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Ottomans, the
See also
- International relations, 1648–1814
- International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
- Diplomatic history of World War I
- British foreign policy in the Middle East
- Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe British ambassador
- Persian-Ottoman relations
- Russia–Turkey relations
- Ottoman Empire–United States relations
- List of diplomatic missions of the Ottoman Empire
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire)
- Foreign relations of Turkey
- Military of the Ottoman Empire
- State organisation of the Ottoman Empire
- Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire
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:|website=
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- ^ He adds, "All the rest were maneuvers which left the combatants at the close of the day exactly where they had started. A.J.P. Taylor, "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962): 554.
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- ^ Kemal H. Karpat, "The entry of the Ottoman empire into world war I." Belleten 68.253 (2004): 1–40. online
- ^ Kemal Karpat, 2004.
- ^ Yiğit Akın, When the War Came Home: The Ottomans' Great War and the Devastation of an Empire. (Stanford Up, 2018) excerpt.
Further reading
- Aksan, Virginia. Ottoman Wars, 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged (Routledge, 2014) excerpt
- Anderson, M.S. The Eastern Question 1774–1923 (1966)
- Bailey, Frank E. "The Economics of British Foreign Policy, 1825–50." Journal of Modern History 12.4 (1940): 449–484, focus on Ottomans. online
- Bailey, Frank Edgar. British policy and the Turkish reform movement: a study in Anglo-Turkish relations, 1826–1853 (Harvard UP, 1942).
- Bloxham, Donald. The great game of genocide: imperialism, nationalism, and the destruction of the Ottoman Armenians (Oxford UP, 2005).
- Dávid, Géza–Fodor, Pál (eds.): Hungarian–Ottoman Military and Diplomatic Relations in the Age of Süleyman the Magnificent (ELTE, Budapest, 1994) https://tti.abtk.hu/kiadvanyok/kiadvanytar/david-geza-fodor-pal-eds-hungarian-ottoman-military-and-diplomatic-relations-in-the-age-of-suleyman-the-magnificent/download
- Davison, Roderic H. Nineteenth century Ottoman diplomacy and reforms (Isis Press, 1999).
- Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present (1986 and other editions), passim and 1463–1464.
- Finkel, Caroline. Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 (Basic, 2005) excerpt.
- Geyikdağı, Necla. "The Evolution of British Commercial Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire." İktisat ve Sosyal Bilimlerde Güncel Araştırmalar 1.1: 9–46. online in English
- Geyikdağı, N. Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854–1914 (I.B. Tauris, 2011).
- Hale, William. Turkish foreign policy since 1774 (Routledge, 2012) pp 8–33 on Ottomans. excerpt.
- Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
- Hitzel, Frédéric (2010). "Les ambassades occidentales à Constantinople et la diffusion d'une certaine image de l'Orient". Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (in French). 154 (1): 277–292.
- Horn, David Bayne. Great Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century (1967), covers 1603 to 1702; pp 352–77.
- Hurewitz, Jacob C. "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." Middle East Journal (1961) 15#2: 141–152 online.
- Inalcik, Halil. The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600. (Praeger, 1971). ISBN 1-84212-442-0.
- Karpat, Kemal H. "The entry of the ottoman empire into world war I." Belleten 68.253 (2004): 1–40. online
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- Merriman, Roger Bigelow. Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 (Harvard UP, 1944) online
- Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
- Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1994).
- Pálosfalvi, Tamás. From Nicopolis to Mohács: A History of Ottoman-Hungarian Warfare, 1389–1526 (Brill, 2018)
- Pamuk, Şevket. The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism, 1820–1913: Trade, Investment and Production (Cambridge UP, 1987).
- Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 (Cambridge UP, 2000).
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- Rodogno, Davide. Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, 1815–1914 (Princeton UP, 2012).
- Shaw, Stanford J. Between Old and New: The Ottoman Empire Under Sultan Selim III, 1789–1807 (Harvard UP, 1971)
- Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (2 vol. Cambridge UP, 1976)..
- Talbot, Michael. British-Ottoman Relations, 1661–1807: Commerce and Diplomatic Practice in Eighteenth-Century Istanbul' (Boydell Press, 2007) online
- Tardy, Lajos: Beyond the Ottoman Empire : 14th-16th century Hungarian [and Habsburg Anti-Ottoman] diplomacy in the East 1978 Szeged JATE transl. by János Boris[from Emperor Sigismund to Emperor Rudolph].
- Watson, Adam. The evolution of international society: a comparative historical analysis. (Routledge, 1992). .
- Yaycioglu, Ali. "Révolutions De Constantinople: France and the Ottoman World in the Age of Revolutions". in French Mediterraneans: Transnational and Imperial Histories, ed by Patricia M. E. Lorcin and Todd Shepard (U of Nebraska Press, 2016), pp. 21–51. online
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- ISBN 9788124110669.
Primary sources
- Anderson, M.S. ed. The great powers and the Near East, 1774–1923 (Edward Arnold, 1970).
- Bourne, Kenneth, ed. The Foreign Policy of Victorian England 1830–1902 (1970); 147 primary documents, plus 194-page introduction. online free to borrow
- Hurewitz, J. C. ed. The Middle East and North Africa in world politics: A documentary record vol 1: European expansion: 1535–1914 (1975); vol 2: A Documentary Record 1914–1956 (1956)vol 2 online