Electrical grid
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An electrical grid (or electricity network) is an interconnected network for
Grids are nearly always synchronous, meaning all distribution areas operate with
The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity delivery, known as the "power grid" in North America, or just "the grid." In the United Kingdom, India, Tanzania, Myanmar, Malaysia and New Zealand, the network is known as the National Grid.
Although electrical grids are widespread, as of 2016[update], 1.4 billion people worldwide were not connected to an electricity grid.[1] As electrification increases, the number of people with access to grid electricity is growing. About 840 million people (mostly in Africa), which is ca. 11% of the World's population, had no access to grid electricity in 2017, down from 1.2 billion in 2010.[2]
Electrical grids can be prone to malicious intrusion or attack; thus, there is a need for
Types (grouped by size)
Microgrid
A microgrid is a local grid that is usually part of the regional wide-area synchronous grid but which can disconnect and operate autonomously.[5] It might do this in times when the main grid is affected by outages. This is known as islanding, and it might run indefinitely on its own resources.
Compared to larger grids, microgrids typically use a lower voltage distribution network and distributed generators.[6] Microgrids may not only be more resilient, but may be cheaper to implement in isolated areas.
A design goal is that a local area produces all of the energy it uses.[5]
Example implementations include:
- Hajjah and Lahj, Yemen: community-owned solar microgrids.[7]
- Île d'Yeu pilot program: sixty-four solar panels with a peak capacity of 23.7 kW on five houses and a battery with a storage capacity of 15 kWh.[8][9]
- Les Anglais, Haiti:[10] includes energy theft detection.[11]
- Mpeketoni, Kenya: a community-based diesel-powered micro-grid system.[12]
- Stone Edge Farm Winery: micro-turbine, fuel-cell, multiple battery, hydrogen electrolyzer, and PV enabled winery in Sonoma, California.[13][14]
Wide area synchronous grid
A
A wide area synchronous grid (also called an "interconnection" in North America) is an electrical grid at a regional scale or greater that operates at a synchronized frequency and is electrically tied together during normal system conditions. These are also known as synchronous zones, the largest of which is the
Each of the interconnects in North America are run at a nominal 60 Hz, while those of Europe run at 50 Hz. Neighbouring interconnections with the same frequency and standards can be synchronized and directly connected to form a larger interconnection, or they may share power without synchronization via high-voltage direct current
The benefits of synchronous zones include pooling of generation, resulting in lower generation costs; pooling of load, resulting in significant equalizing effects; common provisioning of reserves, resulting in cheaper primary and secondary reserve power costs; opening of the market, resulting in possibility of long-term contracts and short term power exchanges; and mutual assistance in the event of disturbances.[16]
One disadvantage of a wide-area synchronous grid is that problems in one part can have repercussions across the whole grid. For example, in 2018 Kosovo used more power than it generated due to a dispute with Serbia, leading to the phase across the whole synchronous grid of Continental Europe lagging behind what it should have been. The frequency dropped to 49.996 Hz. This caused certain kinds of clocks to become six minutes slow.[17]
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The synchronous grids of Europe
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The two major and three minor interconnections of North America
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Major WASGs around the world
Super grid
A super grid or supergrid is a wide-area transmission network that is intended to make possible the trade of high volumes of electricity across great distances. It is sometimes also referred to as a mega grid. Super grids can support a global
Electric utilities between regions are many times interconnected for improved economy and reliability.
Electricity Interconnection Level (EIL) of a grid is the ratio of the total interconnector power to the grid divided by the installed production capacity of the grid. Within the EU, it has set a target of national grids reaching 10% by 2020, and 15% by 2030.[21]
Components
Generation
Electricity generation is the process of generating
The sum of the power outputs of generators on the grid is the production of the grid, typically measured in
Transmission
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, via a web of interconnected lines, to an electrical substation, from which is connected to the distribution system. This networked system of connections is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers.
Because the power is often generated far from where it is consumed, the transmission system can cover great distances. For a given amount of power, transmission efficiency is greater at higher voltages and lower currents. Therefore, voltages are stepped up at the generating station, and stepped down at local substations for distribution to customers.
Most transmission is three-phase. Three phase, compared to single phase, can deliver much more power for a given amount of wire, since the neutral and ground wires are shared.[22] Further, three-phase generators and motors are more efficient than their single-phase counterparts.
However, for conventional conductors one of the main losses are resistive losses which are a square law on current, and depend on distance. High voltage AC transmission lines can lose 1-4% per hundred miles.[23] However, high-voltage direct current can have half the losses of AC. Over very long distances, these efficiencies can offset the additional cost of the required AC/DC converter stations at each end.
Transmission networks are complex with redundant pathways. The physical layout is often forced by what land is available and its geology. Most transmission grids offer the reliability that more complex mesh networks provide. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and power is simply rerouted while repairs are done.
Substations
Substations may perform many different functions but usually transform voltage from low to high (step up) and from high to low (step down). Between the generator and the final consumer, the voltage may be transformed several times.[25]
The three main types of substations, by function, are:[26]
- Step-up substation: these use transformers to raise the voltage coming from the generators and power plants so that power can be transmitted long distances more efficiently, with smaller currents.
- Step-down substation: these transformers lower the voltage coming from the transmission lines which can be used in industry or sent to a distribution substation.
- Distribution substation: these transform the voltage lower again for the distribution to end users.
Aside from transformers, other major components or functions of substations include:
- Circuit breakers: used to automatically break a circuit and isolate a fault in the system.[27]
- Switches: to control the flow of electricity, and isolate equipment.[28]
- The substation busbar: typically a set of three conductors, one for each phase of current. The substation is organized around the buses, and they are connected to incoming lines, transformers, protection equipment, switches, and the outgoing lines.[27]
- Lightning arresters
- Capacitors for power factor correction
- Synchronous condensers for power factor correction and grid stability
Electric power distribution
Distribution is the final stage in the delivery of power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network.[30]
In cities and towns of North America, the grid tends to follow the classic radially fed design. A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped down with a transformer and sent to a bus from which feeders fan out in all directions across the countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the major streets near the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the fanout continues as smaller laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders. This tree-like structure grows outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons, usually contains at least one unused backup connection to a nearby substation. This connection can be enabled in case of an emergency, so that a portion of a substation's service territory can be alternatively fed by another substation.
Storage
Grid energy storage (also called large-scale energy storage) is a collection of methods used for
) or when demand is low, and later returned to the grid when demand is high, and electricity prices tend to be higher.As of 2020[update], the largest form of grid energy storage is dammed hydroelectricity, with both conventional hydroelectric generation as well as pumped storage hydroelectricity.
Developments in battery storage have enabled commercially viable projects to store energy during peak production and release during peak demand, and for use when production unexpectedly falls giving time for slower responding resources to be brought online.
Two alternatives to grid storage are the use of peaking power plants to fill in supply gaps and demand response to shift load to other times.
Functionalities
Demand
The demand, or load on an electrical grid is the total electrical power being removed by the users of the grid.
The graph of the demand over time is called the demand curve.
However, if the demand of electricity exceed the capacity of a local power grid, it will cause safety issue like burning out.[31]
Voltage
Grids are designed to supply electricity to their customers at largely constant voltages. This has to be achieved with varying demand, variable
Frequency
In a synchronous grid all the generators must run at the same frequency, and must stay very nearly in phase with each other and the grid. Generation and consumption must be balanced across the entire grid, because energy is consumed as it is produced. For rotating generators, a local governor regulates the driving torque, maintaining almost constant rotation speed as loading changes. Energy is stored in the immediate short term by the rotational kinetic energy of the generators.
Although the speed is kept largely constant, small deviations from the nominal system frequency are very important in regulating individual generators and are used as a way of assessing the equilibrium of the grid as a whole. When the grid is lightly loaded the grid frequency runs above the nominal frequency, and this is taken as an indication by
In addition, there's often central control, which can change the parameters of the AGC systems over timescales of a minute or longer to further adjust the regional network flows and the operating frequency of the grid.
For timekeeping purposes, the nominal frequency will be allowed to vary in the short term, but is adjusted to prevent line-operated clocks from gaining or losing significant time over the course of a whole 24 hour period.
An entire synchronous grid runs at the same frequency, neighbouring grids would not be synchronised even if they run at the same nominal frequency. High-voltage direct current lines or variable-frequency transformers can be used to connect two alternating current interconnection networks which are not synchronized with each other. This provides the benefit of interconnection without the need to synchronize an even wider area. For example, compare the wide area synchronous grid map of Europe with the map of HVDC lines.
Capacity and firm capacity
The sum of the maximum power outputs (nameplate capacity) of the generators attached to an electrical grid might be considered to be the capacity of the grid.
However, in practice, they are never run flat out simultaneously. Typically, some generators are kept running at lower output powers (
Firm capacity is the maximum power output on a grid that is immediately available over a given time period, and is a far more useful figure.
Production
Most grid codes specify that the load is shared between the generators in merit order according to their marginal cost (i.e. cheapest first) and sometimes their environmental impact. Thus cheap electricity providers tend to be run flat out almost all the time, and the more expensive producers are only run when necessary.
Failures and issues
Failures are usually associated with generators or power transmission lines tripping circuit breakers due to faults leading to a loss of generation capacity for customers, or excess demand. This will often cause the frequency to reduce, and the remaining generators will react and together attempt to stabilize above the minimum. If that is not possible then a number of scenarios can occur.
A large failure in one part of the grid — unless quickly compensated for — can cause current to re-route itself to flow from the remaining generators to consumers over transmission lines of insufficient capacity, causing further failures. One downside to a widely connected grid is thus the possibility of cascading failure and widespread power outage. A central authority is usually designated to facilitate communication and develop protocols to maintain a stable grid. For example, the North American Electric Reliability Corporation gained binding powers in the United States in 2006, and has advisory powers in the applicable parts of Canada and Mexico. The U.S. government has also designated National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors, where it believes transmission bottlenecks have developed.
Brownout
A brownout is an intentional or unintentional drop in voltage in an electrical power supply system. Intentional brownouts are used for load reduction in an emergency.[33] The reduction lasts for minutes or hours, as opposed to short-term voltage sag (or dip). The term brownout comes from the dimming experienced by incandescent lighting when the voltage sags. A voltage reduction may be an effect of disruption of an electrical grid, or may occasionally be imposed in an effort to reduce load and prevent a power outage, known as a blackout.[34]
Blackout
A power outage (also called a power cut, a power out, a power blackout, power failure or a blackout) is a loss of the electric power to a particular area.
Power failures can be caused by faults at power stations, damage to electric transmission lines,
operation, and human error.Power failures are particularly critical at sites where the environment and public safety are at risk. Institutions such as
Load shedding
Black start
A black start is the process of restoring an electric power station or a part of an
Normally, the electric power used within the plant is provided from the station's own generators. If all of the plant's main generators are shut down, station service power is provided by drawing power from the grid through the plant's transmission line. However, during a wide-area outage, off-site power from the grid is not available. In the absence of grid power, a so-called black start needs to be performed to bootstrap the power grid into operation.
To provide a black start, some power stations have small
Obsolescence
Despite novel institutional arrangements and network designs, power delivery infrastructures is experiencing aging across the developed world. Contributing factors include:
- Aging equipment – older equipment has higher repair and restorationcosts.
- Obsolete system layout – older areas require serious additional substation sites and rights-of-waythat cannot be obtained in the current area and are forced to use existing, insufficient facilities.
- Outdated engineering – traditional tools for power deliveryplanning and engineering are ineffective in addressing current problems of aged equipment, obsolete system layouts, and modern deregulated loading levels.
- Old cultural value – planning, engineering, operating of system using concepts and procedures that worked in vertically integrated industry exacerbate the problem under a deregulated industry.[38]
Trends
Demand response
Demand response is a grid management technique where retail or wholesale customers are requested or incentivised either electronically or manually to reduce their load. Currently, transmission grid operators use demand response to request load reduction from major energy users such as industrial plants.[39] Technologies such as smart metering can encourage customers to use power when electricity is plentiful by allowing for variable pricing.
Distributed generation
With everything interconnected, and open competition occurring in a
As the 21st century progresses, the electric utility industry seeks to take advantage of novel approaches to meet growing energy demand. Utilities are under pressure to evolve their classic topologies to accommodate distributed generation. As generation becomes more common from rooftop solar and wind generators, the differences between distribution and transmission grids will continue to blur. In July 2017 the CEO of Mercedes-Benz said that the energy industry needs to work better with companies from other industries to form a "total ecosystem", to integrate central and distributed energy resources (DER) to give customers what they want. The electrical grid was originally constructed so that electricity would flow from power providers to consumers. However, with the introduction of DER, power needs to flow both ways on the electric grid, because customers may have power sources such as solar panels.[40]
Smart grid
The smart grid is an enhancement of the 20th century electrical grid, using two-way communications and distributed so-called intelligent devices.[41] Two-way flows of electricity and information could improve the delivery network. Research is mainly focused on three systems of a smart grid – the infrastructure system, the management system, and the protection system.[42] Electronic power conditioning and control of the production and distribution of electricity are important aspects of the smart grid.[43]
The smart grid represents the full suite of current and proposed responses to the challenges of electricity supply. Numerous contributions to the overall improvement of the efficiency of energy infrastructure are anticipated from the deployment of smart grid technology, in particular including
A smart grid includes a variety of operation and energy measures:
- Advanced metering infrastructure (of which smart metersare a generic name for any utility side device even if it is more capable e.g. a fiber optic router)
- Smart home control and demand response(behind the meter from a utility perspective)
- smart appliances, often financed by efficiency gains on municipal programs (e.g. PACE financing)
- Renewable energy resources, including the capacity to charge parked (electric vehicle) batteries or larger arrays of batteries recycled from these, or other energy storage.
- Energy efficient resources
- Electric surplus distribution by power lines and auto-smart switch
- Sufficient utility grade fiber broadband to connect and monitor the above, with wireless as a backup. Sufficient spare if "dark" capacity to ensure failover, often leased for revenue.[45][46]
Concerns with smart grid technology mostly focus on smart meters, items enabled by them, and general security issues. Roll-out of smart grid technology also implies a fundamental re-engineering of the electricity services industry, although typical usage of the term is focused on the technical infrastructure.[47]
Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European Technology Platform.[48] Policy in the United States is described in 42 U.S.C. ch. 152, subch. IX § 17381.Grid defection
Resistance to distributed generation among grid operators may encourage providers to leave the grid and instead distribute power to smaller geographies.[49][50][51]
The
Reconductoring
Some utilities have embraced “reconductoring” to handle the increase in electricity production. Reconductoring is the replacement-in-place of existing transmission lines with higher capacity lines. Adding transmission lines is difficult due to cost, permit intervals, and local opposition. Reconductoring has the potential to double the amount of electricity that can travel across a transmission line.[55]
The rate of transmission expansion needs to double to support ongoing electrification and reach emission reduction targets. As of 2022, more than 10,000 power plant and energy storage projects were awaiting permission to connect to the US grid — 95% were zero-carbon resources. New power lines can take 10 years to plan, permit, and build.[55]
Traditional power lines use a steel core surrounded by aluminum strands. Replacing the steel with a lighter, stronger composite material, such as
A reconductoring project in southeastern Texas upgraded 240 miles of transmission lines at a cost of $900,000 per mile, versus a 3,600-mile greenfield project that averaged $1.9 million per mile.[55]
History
Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy. In the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially coal gas. Coal gas was first produced on customer's premises but later evolved into gasification plants that enjoyed economies of scale. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, used for lighting. But gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smokey, and gave off hydrogen and carbon monoxide. They also posed a fire hazard. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting.
In the United Kingdom,
In France, electrification began in the 1900s, with 700 communes in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938. At the same time, these close networks began to interconnect: Paris in 1907 at 12 kV, the Pyrénées in 1923 at 150 kV, and finally almost all of the country interconnected by 1938 at 220 kV. In 1946, the grid was the world's most dense. That year the state nationalised the industry, by uniting the private companies as Électricité de France. The frequency was standardised at 50 Hz, and the 225 kV network replaced 110 kV and 120 kV. Since 1956, service voltage has been standardised at 220/380 V, replacing the previous 127/220 V. During the 1970s, the 400 kV network, the new European standard, was implemented. The end user service voltage will progressively change to 230/400 V +/-10% since may 29, 1986.[61][62]
In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage and backup power. In 1934, with the passage of the
In China, electrification began in the 1950s.
See also
- Grid code: a specification for grid-connected equipment
- North American power transmission grid
- Sustainable energy
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External links
- Open Infrastructure Map is a view of the world's hidden power infrastructure mapped in the OpenStreetMap database.