High-speed rail in China
The
High-speed rail developed rapidly in China since the mid-2000s. CRH was
Notable HSR lines in China include the
Economics of the high-speed rail has been a topic of discussion.[9][10] A 2019 study produced by TransFORM, a knowledge platform developed by the World Bank and China’s Ministry of Transport, estimated the annual rate of economic return of China's high-speed rail network in 2015, to be at 8 percent, which is well above the opportunity cost of capital in China for major long term infrastructure investments. The study also noted a range of benefits which included shortened travel times, improved safety and better facilitation of tourism, labor and mobility, as well as reducing highway congestion, accidents and greenhouse emissions as some automobile travellers switch from car use to rail.[11][12] A 2020 study by Paulson Institute has estimated the net benefit of the high-speed rail system to be approximately $378 billion, with an annual return on investment of 6.5%.[13]
Definition and terminology
High-speed rail in China is officially defined as "newly-built passenger-dedicated rail lines designed for
Thus, high-speed rail service in China requires high-speed EMU train sets to be providing passenger service on high speed rail lines at speeds of not less than 200 km/h (124 mph). EMU trains operating on non-high speed track or otherwise but at speeds below 200 km/h (124 mph) are not considered high-speed rail. Certain mixed use freight and passenger rail lines, that can be upgraded for train speeds of 250 km/h (155 mph), with current passenger service of at least 200 km/h (124 mph), are also considered high-speed rail.[14]
In common parlance, high-speed train service in China generally refers to G-, D- and C-class passenger train service.
- Beijing–Shanghai HSR, a line with an operating speed of 350 km/h (217 mph).
- D-class (动车; dòngchē; 'electrical multiple unit') train service features EMU trains running at lower speeds, whether on high-speed or non-high-speed track. D-class trains can vary widely in actual trip speed. The non-stop D211 train from Guiyang East to Guangzhou South on the Guiyang–Guangzhou HSR, a line with designed speed of 250 km/h (155 mph), averages 207 km/h (129 mph) for the trip. The D312 EMU sleeper train between Beijing South and Shanghai on the non-high speed Beijing–Shanghai railway averages 121 km/h (75 mph) for the trip.
- C-class (城际; chéngjì; 'intercity') train service that operate on high-speed track at speeds above 250 km/h (155 mph) are also considered high-speed rail service. For example, C-class trains on the Beijing–Tianjin ICR, reach top speeds of 350 km/h (217 mph) and completing the trip in 30 mins.
High-speed ridership statistics in China are often reported as the number of passengers carried by high-speed EMU train sets, and such figures typically include passengers on EMU trains operating on non-high speed track or at service speeds below 200 km/h (124 mph).[15]
History
Precursor
The earliest example of higher-speed commercial train service in China was the Asia Express, a luxury passenger train that operated in Japanese-controlled Manchuria from 1934 to 1943.[16] The steam-powered train, which ran on the South Manchuria Railway from Dalian to Xinjing (Changchun), had a top commercial speed of 110 km/h (68 mph) and a test speed of 130 km/h (81 mph).[16] It was faster than the fastest trains in Japan at the time. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, this train model was renamed the SL-7 and was used by the Chinese Minister of Railways.
Early planning
State planning for China's current high-speed railway network began in the early 1990s under the leadership of
Policy planners debated the necessity and economic viability of high-speed rail service. Supporters argued that high-speed rail would boost future economic growth. Opponents noted that high-speed rail in other countries were expensive and mostly unprofitable. Overcrowding on existing rail lines, they said, could be solved by expanding capacity through higher speed and frequency of service.[
The "Speed Up" campaigns
In 1993,
A notable example is the Guangzhou–Shenzhen railway, which in December 1994 became the first line in China to offer sub-high-speed service of 160 km/h (99 mph) using domestically produced DF-class diesel locomotives. The line was electrified in 1998, and Swedish-made X 2000 trains increased service speed to 200 km/h (124 mph). After the completion of a third track in 2000 and a fourth in 2007, the line became the first in China to run high-speed passenger and freight service on separate tracks.
The completion of the sixth round of the "Speed-Up" Campaign in April 2007 brought HSR service to more existing lines: 423 km (263 mi) capable of 250 km/h (155 mph) train service and 3,002 km (1,865 mi) capable of 200 km/h (124 mph).[22][note 4] In all, travel speed increased on 22,000 km (14,000 mi), or one-fifth, of the national rail network, and the average speed of passenger trains improved to 70 km/h (43 mph). The introduction of more non-stop service between large cities also helped to reduce travel time. The non-stop express train from Beijing to Fuzhou shortened travel time from 33.5 to less than 20 hours.[25] In addition to track and scheduling improvements, the MOR also deployed faster
The conventional rail v. maglev debate
The development of the HSR network in China was initially delayed by a debate over the type of track technology to be used. In June 1998, at a State Council meeting with the
Maglev received a big boost in 2000 when the
Despite unmatched advantage in speed, the maglev has not gained widespread use in China's high-speed rail network due to high cost, German refusal to share technology and concerns about safety. The price tag of the Shanghai Maglev was believed to be $1.3 billion and was partially financed by the German government. The refusal of the Transrapid Consortium to share technology and source production in China made large-scale maglev production much more costly than high-speed train technology for conventional lines. Finally, residents living along the proposed maglev route have raised health concerns about noise and
While maglev was drawing attention to Shanghai, conventional track HSR technology was being tested on the newly completed
In 2004, the State Council in its Mid-to-Long Term Railway Development Plan, adopted conventional track HSR technology over maglev for the Beijing–Shanghai High Speed Railway and three other north–south high-speed rail lines. This decision ended the debate and cleared the way for rapid construction of standard gauge, passenger dedicated HSR lines in China.[30][31]
Acquisition of foreign technology
Despite setting speed records on test tracks, the DJJ2, DJF2 and other domestically produced high-speed trains were insufficiently reliable for commercial operation.
In 2003, the MOR was believed to favor Japan's
In June 2004, the MOR solicited bids to make 200 high-speed train sets that can run 200 km/h (124 mph).
The following year, Siemens reshuffled its bidding team, lowered prices, joined the bidding for 350 km/h (217 mph) trains and won a 60-train set order.
Technology transfer
Achieving indigenous high-speed rail technology has been a major goal of Chinese state planners. Chinese train-makers, after receiving transferred foreign technology, have been able to achieve a considerable degree of self-sufficiency in making the next generation of high-speed trains by developing indigenous capability to produce key parts and improving upon foreign designs.
Examples of technology transfer include
For foreign train-makers, technology transfer is an important part of gaining market access in China. Bombardier, the first foreign train-maker to form a joint venture in China, has been sharing technology for the manufacture of railway passenger cars and rolling stock since 1998. Zhang Jianwei, President and Chief Country Representative of Bombardier China, stated that in a 2009 interview, “Whatever technology Bombardier has, whatever the China market needs, there is no need to ask. Bombardier transfers advanced and mature technology to China, which we do not treat as an experimental market.”[39] Unlike other series which have imported prototypes, all CRH1 trains have been assembled at Bombardier's joint-venture with CSR, Bombardier Sifang in Qingdao.
Kawasaki's cooperation with CSR did not last as long. Within two years of cooperation with Kawasaki to produce 60 CRH2A sets, CSR began in 2008 to build CRH2B, CRH2C and CRH2E models at its Sifang plant independently without assistance from Kawasaki.[40] According to CSR president Zhang Chenghong, CSR "made the bold move of forming a systemic development platform for high-speed locomotives and further upgrading its design and manufacturing technology. Later, we began to independently develop high-speed CRH trains with a maximum velocity of 300–350 kilometers per hour, which eventually rolled off the production line in December 2007."[41] Since then, CSR has ended its cooperation with Kawasaki.[42] Kawasaki challenged China's high-speed rail project for patent theft, but backed off the effort.[43]
Between June and September 2005, the MOR launched bidding for high-speed trains with a top speed of 350 km/h (217 mph), as most of the main high-speed rail lines were designed for top speeds of 350 km/h (217 mph) or higher. Along with CRH3C, produced by Siemens and CNR Tangshan, CSR Sifang bid 60 sets of CRH2C.
In 2007, travel time from Beijing to Shanghai was about 10 hours at a top speed of 200 km/h (124 mph) on the upgraded
Construction of the
On October 19, 2010, the MOR announced the beginning of research and development of "super-speed" railway technology, which would increase the maximum speed of trains to over 500 km/h (311 mph).[45]
Early passenger-dedicated high-speed rail lines
After committing to conventional-track high-speed rail in 2006, the state embarked on an ambitious campaign to build passenger-dedicated high-speed rail lines, which accounted for a large part of the government's growing budget for rail construction. Total investment in new rail lines grew from $14 billion in 2004 to $22.7 and $26.2 billion in 2006 and 2007.
As of 2007, the
National high-speed rail grid (4+4)
Higher-speed express train service allowed more trains to share the tracks and improved rail transport capacity. But high-speed trains often have to share tracks with slower, heavy freight trains – in some cases with as little as 5 minutes headway.
The Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway (Wuguang PDL), which opened on December 26, 2009, was the country's first cross-regional high-speed rail line. With a total length of 968 km (601 mi) and capacity to accommodate trains traveling at 350 km/h (217 mph), the Wuguang PDL set a world record for the fastest commercial train service with average trip speed of 312.5 km/h (194.2 mph). Train travel between central and southern China’s largest cities, Wuhan and Guangzhou, was reduced to just over three hours. On October 26, 2010, China opened its 15th high-speed rail, the
By January 2011, China had the world's
Corruption and concerns
In February 2011,
After the political shake-up, concerns about HSR safety, high ticket prices, financial sustainability and environmental impact received greater scrutiny in the Chinese press.[58][59]
In April 2011, the new Minister of Railways Sheng Guangzu said that due to corruption, safety may have been compromised on some construction projects and completion dates may have to be pushed back.[55] Sheng announced that all trains in the high-speed rail network would operate at a maximum speed of 300 km/h (186 mph) beginning on July 1, 2011.[58][60][61] This was in response to concerns over safety, low ridership due to high ticket prices,[62] and high energy usage.[59] On June 13, 2011, the MOR clarified in a press conference that the speed reduction was not due to safety concerns but to offer more affordable tickets for trains at 250 km/h (155 mph) and increase ridership. Higher-speed train travel uses greater energy and imposes more wear on expensive machinery. Railway officials lowered the top speed of trains on most lines that were running at 350 km/h (217 mph) to 300 km/h (186 mph). Trains on the Beijing-Tianjin high-speed line and a few other inter-city lines remained at 350 km/h (217 mph).[63] In May 2011, China's
Wenzhou accident
On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the
The train collision exposed poor management by the railway company.[85][86] This fatal accident, which happened in the midst of corruption investigations into railway officials, led to greater scrutiny in the Chinese press and the populace concerning the HSR[58][59][85][86] and on the railway company.[58][59]
Following the deadly crash, the Chinese government suspended new railway project approvals and launched safety checks on existing equipment.[87][88] A commission was formed to investigate the accident with a directive to report its findings in September 2011.[89] On August 10, 2011, the Chinese government announced that it was suspending approvals of any new high-speed rail lines pending the outcome of the investigation.[90][91] The Minister of Railways announced further cuts in the speed of Chinese high-speed trains, with the speed of the second-tier 'D' trains reduced from 250 km/h (155 mph) to 200 km/h (124 mph), and 200 km/h (124 mph) to 160 km/h (99 mph) on upgraded pre-existing lines.[92] The speed of the remaining 350 km/h (217 mph) trains between Shanghai and Hangzhou was reduced to 300 km/h (186 mph) as of August 28, 2011.[93] To stimulate ridership, on August 16, 2011, ticket prices on high-speed trains were reduced by five percent.[94] From July to September, high-speed rail ridership in China fell by nearly 151 million trips to 30 million trips.[95]
Slowdown in financing and construction
In the first half of 2011, the MOR as a whole made a profit of ¥4.29 billion and carried a total debt burden of ¥2.09 trillion, equal to about 5% of China's GDP.[96][97] Earnings from the more profitable freight lines helped to off-set losses by high-speed rail lines.[citation needed] As of years ending 2008, 2009 and 2010, the MOR's debt-to-asset ratio was respectively, 46.81%, 53.06% and 57.44%,[98] and reached 58.58% by mid-year 2011.[99] As of October 12, 2011, the MOR had issued ¥160 billion of debt for the year.[97] But in the late summer, state banks began to cut back on lending to rail construction projects, which reduced funding for existing railway projects. An investigation of 23 railway construction companies in August 2011 revealed that 70% of existing projects had been slowed or halted mainly due to shortage of funding.[99] Affected lines included Xiamen-Shenzhen, Nanning-Guangzhou, Guiyang-Guangzhou, Shijiazhuang-Wuhan, Tianjin-Baoding and Shanghai-Kunming high-speed rail lines.[95][96] By October, work had halted on the construction of 10,000 km (6,200 mi) of track.[95] New projects were put on hold and completion dates for existing projects, including the Tianjin-Baoding, Harbin-Jiamusi, Zhengzhou-Xuzhou and Hainan Ring (West), were pushed back.[99] As of October 2011, the MOR was reportedly concentrating remaining resources on fewer high-speed rail lines and shifting emphasis to more economically viable coal transporting heavy rail.[97]
To ease the credit shortage facing rail construction, the Ministry of Finance announced tax cuts to interest earned on rail construction financing bonds and the State Council ordered state banks to renew lending to rail projects.[95] In late October and November 2011, the MOR raised RMB 250 billion in fresh financing and construction resumed on several lines including the Tianjin-Baoding, Xiamen-Shenzhen and Shanghai-Kunming.[100]
Recovery
By early 2012, the Chinese government renewed investments in high-speed rail to rejuvenate the slowing economy.
On December 28, 2013, the total length of high-speed rail tracks nationally topped 10,000 km (6,200 mi) with the opening of the Xiamen–Shenzhen, Xian–Baoji, Chongqing−Lichuan high-speed railways as well as intercity lines in Hubei and Guangxi.[111]
Second boom
In 2014, high-speed rail expansion gained speed with the opening of the
In response to a slowing economy, central planners approved a slew of new lines including
The government actively promoted the export of high-speed rail technology to countries including Mexico, Thailand, the United Kingdom, India, Russia and Turkey. To better compete with foreign trainmakers, the central authorities arranged for the merger of the country's two main high-speed train-makers,
By 2015, six high speed rail lines, Beijing–Tianjin, Shanghai–Nanjing, Beijing–Shanghai, Shanghai–Hangzhou, Nanjing–Hangzhou and Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong report operational profitability.[123] The Beijing–Shanghai is particularly profitable reporting a 6.6 billion yuan net profit.[124]
In 2016, with the near completion of the National 4+4 grid, a new "Mid-to-Long Term Railway Network" Plan was drafted. The plan envisions a larger 8+8 high speed rail grid serving the nation and expanded intercity lines for regional and commuter services for large
Since 2017, with the introduction of the Fuxing series of trains, a number of lines have resumed 350 km/h operations such as Beijing–Shanghai HSR, Beijing–Tianjin ICR, and Chengdu–Chongqing ICR.[127]
The HSR network reached 37,900 km (23,500 mi) in total length by the end of 2020.[128] In 2025, the HSR network will reach a total length of 50.000 km and will grow further.[129]
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Source: 2023[130] |
Development and social impact
China's high-speed rail expansion is entirely managed, planned and financed by the Chinese government.
Public interest, safety, and concern
On one hand, the demand of high-speed rail in China steadily increases over time. In 2012, the average occupancy rate of high-speed rails in China was 57%. This percentage increased to 65%, 69% and 72% in the year of 2013, 2014 and 2015, respectively. As of February 2016, high-speed rails covered nearly 20,000 km (12,427 mi).[131] On the other hand, however, public concerns about the high-speed rail development have been raised from various perspectives.[132]
The safety issue that drew the attention of the public and the government was the Wenzhou train collision which happened on July 23, 2011, in which 40 people died, 172 were injured, and 54 related officials blamed and punished.[133] According to a 2014 World Bank report, the incident was attributed to inadequate testing of a new design for signaling equipment, which lacked proper fail-safe features. Outside of this major accident in 2011, Chinese HSR provides "world-class" quality of service and comfort, and carries a large volume of passengers safely.[134]
However overall, Chinese high speed rail has an exemplary safety record[135]: 70 and according to The New York Times, the Chinese high-speed rail network is "one of the world’s safest transportation systems."[136] As of at least 2024, the Wenzhou crash remains the only serious accident in the massive Chinese HSR network.[135]: 70
Construction costs
According to a 2019 World Bank report, China was able to have construction costs of its high speed rail to be at an average of $17 million to 21 million dollars per km, which is lower than other countries by a third. Standardization of the designs and procedures were cited as the key reason for keeping costs down.[137][138][139]
Economic efficiency
Experts expressed concern of the network's operational efficiency.
Policy justifications
Critics both in China and abroad have questioned the necessity of having an expensive high-speed rail system in a largely developing country, where most workers cannot afford to pay a premium for faster travel. which:
- Improves economic competitiveness over the long term by increasing the transport capacity of railways and linking labor markets.[48][146] Dedicating passenger transport to high-speed lines frees up older conventional railways to freights, which can now carry more payload at lower speed and is more profitable for railway companies than passengers, whose fares are subsidized.[144]
- Stimulates the economy in the short term as HSR construction creates jobs and drives up demand for construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. Work on the Beijing–Shanghai HSR mobilized 110,000 workers.[46][146][147]
- Facilitates cross-city economic integration and promotes the growth of second-tier cities.[148] The introduction of the high-speed railways is responsible for 59% of the increase in market potential for the secondary cities connected by bullet trains. (Market potential, a concept used by economic geographers, measures "a geographic area's access to markets for inputs and outputs.") A 10% increase in a secondary city's market potential is expected to be associated with a 4.5% increase in its average real estate price.[149]
- Supports energy independence and environmental sustainability. Electric trains use less energy to transport people and goods on a per unit basis and can draw power from more diverse sources of energy including renewables than automobile and aircraft, which are more reliant on imported petroleum.[144]
- Develop an indigenous high-speed rail equipment industry. The expansion into HSR is also developing China into a leading source of high-speed rail building technology.[46] Chinese train-makers have absorbed imported technologies quickly, localized production processes, and even begun to compete with foreign suppliers in the export market. Six years after receiving Kawasaki's license to produce Shinkansen E2, CSC Sifang can produce the CRH2A without Japanese input, and Kawasaki has ended cooperation with Sifang on high-speed rail.[150]
Profitability and debt
One major concern of the high-speed rail network is the high amount of debt incurred. As of 2022, the China State Railway Group has had a debt of around US$900 billion, according to Nikkei.
Construction financing
China's high-speed rail construction projects are highly
Table:Construction cost of HSR lines in operation. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Large construction debt-loads require significant revenues from rider fares, subsidies, and/or other sources of income, such as advertising, to repay. Despite impressive ridership figures, virtually every completed line has incurred losses in its first years of operation. For example, the Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway in its two full years of operation, delivered over 41 million rides. The line cost ¥20.42 billion to build, and ¥1.8 billion per annum to operate, including ¥0.6 billion in interest payments on its ¥10 billion of loan obligations.[172] The terms of the loans range from 5–10 years at interest rates of 6.3 to 6.8 percent.[172] In its first year of operation from August 1, 2008, to July 31, 2009, the line carried 18.7 million riders and generated ¥1.1 billion in revenues, which resulted in a loss of ¥0.7 billion. In the second year, ridership rose to 22.3 million and revenues improved to ¥1.4 billion, which narrowed losses somewhat to below ¥0.5 billion.[172] To break even, the line must deliver 30 million rides annually.[172] To be able to repay principal, ridership would need to exceed 40 million.[172] In September 2010, daily ridership averaged 69,000 or an annual rate of 25.2 million.[172] In 2013, ridership totaled 25.85 million.[173] The line has a capacity of delivering 100 million rides annually[174] and initial estimated repayment period of 16 years.[172] In 2012, the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway reported that it had broken even, and by 2015 was operating at a profit.[175][176]
The Shijiazhuang-Taiyuan PDL lost ¥0.8 billion in its first year and is set to lose ¥0.9 billion in 2010.[152] The Southeast HSR corridor lost ¥0.377 billion in its first year beginning August 2009.[152] The Zhengzhou-Xian HSR since opening in February 2010 was expected to generate revenues of ¥0.6 billion in its first full year but must make interest payments of ¥1.1 billion. In the first three quarters of 2012, the line lost ¥1.87 billion.[177] The losses must be covered by the operator, which is usually subsidized by local governments.[174] In December 2014, the Henan provincial government imposed a rule requiring municipal authorities pay 70% of the deficit incurred by Henan's intercity lines with the provincial authorities paying the remainder 30%.[178]
The MOR faces a debt-repayment peak in 2014.[152] Some economists recommend further subsidies to lower fares and boost ridership and ultimately revenues.[174] Others warn that the financing side of the existing construction and operation model is unsustainable.[174] If the rail-backed loans cannot be fully repaid, they may be refinanced or the banks may seize ownership of the railways.[152] To prevent that eventuality, the MOR is trying to improve management of its rapidly growing HSR holdings.[152]
Overall, ridership is growing as the high-speed rail network continues to expand. High-speed rail is also becoming relatively more affordable as fares have remained stable while worker wages have grown sharply over the same period.[179] In 2016, the high-speed rail revenue was 140.9 billion RMB Yuan (US$20 billion), while the same term interest from at least 3300 billion debt of its construction was 156.8 billion RMB Yuan (US$22.4 billion).[180] According to the World Bank, a stable long term planning and standardization of technology and design used in the high-speed rail helps to reduce financial and operational cost. Standardization of designs and procedures such as train tracks, rolling stocks, signal systems keeps the construction cost down. Moreover, State-owned corporation also uses bulk purchasing to reduce material prices.[181]
Fare cost comparisons
In 2013 fares for China's high-speed rail service costs significantly less than similar systems in other developed countries, for comparison high speed rail tickets in France or Germany cost slightly over US$0.10 per kilometer and the various Shinkansen services hover above US$0.20 per kilometer.[citation needed] A 2019 study by the World Bank Group, had found that the HSR fares in China are low when compared to other countries and have attracted passengers from all income levels. They noted that HSR is "very competitive" with bus and aircraft transport for distances between 150 km and 800 km (about 3 to 4 hours travel time). Additionally due to the frequency and its high speeds, HSR services that travel at 350kph, still remains competitive with other modes of transport, for distances of up to 1,200 km.[48][182]
Trip | Distance | Price | Price US$/km | Time |
---|---|---|---|---|
HSR trip from Beijing to Jinan | 419 km (260 mi) | CNY185 (US$30) | 0.07 | 1 hour 22 minutes |
HSR trip from Paris to Lyon | 428 km (266 mi) | CNY240 (US$39) | 0.10 | 2 hours |
HSR trip from Madrid to Valencia, Spain | 391 km (243 mi) | €33–58 (US$41–72) | 0.11–0.18 | 1 hour 40 minutes |
HSR train from Tokyo to Gifu-Hashima | 396 km (246 mi) | CNY270 (US$43) | 0.11 | 1 hour 56 minutes |
Impact on airlines
The spread of high-speed rail has forced domestic airlines in China to slash airfare and cancel regional flights.[183] The impact of high-speed rail on air travel is most acute for intercity trips under 500 km (310 mi).[183] By the spring of 2011, commercial airline service had been completely halted on previously popular routes such as Wuhan–Nanjing, Wuhan–Nanchang, Xi’an–Zhengzhou and Chengdu–Chongqing.[183] Flights on routes over 1,500 km (930 mi) are generally unaffected.[183] As of October 2013, high-speed rail was carrying twice as many passengers each month as the country's airlines.[179]
Track network
China's high-speed railway network is by far the longest in the world. The HSR network reached 45,000 km (28,000 mi) in total length by end of 2023 with plans to reach 70,000 km (43,000 mi) in 2035.[184] HSR lines with design speeds at 200–250 km/h (120–160 mph) are more common than higher speed lines. According to a World Bank publication on Chinese HSR, by the end of 2017 "the length of 300–350 kph lines was about 10,000 km, and the length of 200–250 kph lines was about 15,000 km."[4]
Newer HSR lines are one of three types:
- passenger dedicated lines (PDLs) with a design speed of 350 km/h (217 mph),
- regional lines connecting major cities with a design speed of 250 km/h (155 mph), and
- certain regional "intercity" HSR lines with a design speed of 200–350 km/h (120–220 mph).
Lastly, the HSR network includes rail lines that had been newly constructed during a previous stage of the high speed rail build up, carrying high-speed passenger and express freight trains with a design speed of 200–250 km/h (120–160 mph).[4]
National High-Speed Rail Grid
The centerpiece of China's expansion into high-speed rail is a national high-speed rail grid consisting of mainly passenger dedicated lines that is overlaid onto the existing railway network.
4+4 HSR Grid
The grid is composed of eight high-speed rail corridors, four running north–south and four east–west, and has a total of 12,000 km (7,456 mi).[49] Most of the lines follow the routes of existing trunk lines and are designated for passenger traffic only. They are known as passenger-designated lines (PDL). Several sections of the national grid, especially along the southeast coastal corridor, were built to link cities that had no previous rail connections. Those sections will carry a mix of passenger and freight. High-speed trains on HSR Corridors can generally reach 300–350 km/h (190–220 mph). On mixed-use HSR lines, passenger train service can attain peak speeds of 200–250 km/h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was planned to be built by 2020, but the government's stimulus has expedited time-tables considerably for many of the lines.
8+8 HSR Grid
The 4+4 national HSR grid was largely completed by the end of 2015 and now serves as the backbone of China's HSR network. In July 2016, the state planners reorganized the national HSR network – including HSR lines in operation, under construction and under planning – into eight vertical and eight horizontal high speed rail corridors, almost doubling the network.[185][186]
Eight Verticals[187]
- Coastal corridor
- Beijing–Shanghai corridor
- Beijing–Hong Kong (Taipei) corridor
- Harbin–Hong Kong (Macau) corridor
- Hohhot–Nanning corridor
- Beijing–Kunming corridor
- Baotou (Yinchuan)–Hainan corridor
- Lanzhou (Xining)–Guangzhou corridor
Eight Horizontals[188]
- Suifenhe–Manzhouli corridor
- Beijing–Lanzhou corridor
- Qingdao–Yinchuan corridor
- Eurasia Continental Bridge corridor
- Yangtze River corridor
- Shanghai–Kunming corridor
- Xiamen–Chongqing corridor
- Guangzhou–Kunming corridor
Regional High-Speed Rail
According to the "Mid-to-Long Term Railway Network Plan" (revised in 2008), the MOR plans to build over 40,000 km (25,000 mi) of railway in order to expand the railway network in western China and to fill gaps in the networks of eastern and central China. Some of these new railways are being built to accommodate speeds of 200–250 km/h (120–160 mph) for both passengers and freight. These are also considered high-speed rail though they are not part of the national HSR grid or Intercity High Speed Rail. Several HSR lines planned and built as a regional high-speed railway under the 2008 Revisions have since been incorporated into the 8+8 national grid.
High-speed intercity railways
Intercity railways are designed to provide regional high-speed rail service between large cities and
Passenger-freight railways and connecting conventional lines
The HSR network includes new mixed passenger-freight lines with a design speed of 200–250 km/h (120–160 mph). Some high speed trains also continue on or run over connecting segments of upgraded conventional lines. Trains can operate at 200 km/h (124 mph) on many of the conventional main lines.[4]
Service
Rail operators
Almost all HSR trains, tracks, and services are owned and operated by the
China has the world's only commercial maglev high-speed train line in operation. The
Two other Maglev lines, the
Ridership
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Source: [104] 2008[194] 2010[195] 2011[196] 2014[197][198] 2015[199][200] 2016[201] 2017[202] 2018[203] 2019[204] 2020-2022[205] |
China Railway reports the number of passengers carried by high-speed EMU train sets and this figure is frequently reported as high-speed ridership, even though this figure includes passengers from EMU trains providing sub-high speed service.[206] In 2007, CRH EMU trains running on conventional track upgraded in the sixth round of the "Speed-up Campaign" carried 61 million passengers, before the country's first high-speed rail line, the Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway, opened in August 2008.
In 2018, China Railway operated 3,970.5 pairs of passenger train service, of which 2,775 pairs were carried by EMU train sets.[206] Of the 3.313 billion passenger-trips delivered by China Railway in 2018, EMU train sets carried 2.001 billion passenger-trips.[206] This EMU passenger figure includes ridership from certain D- and C-class trains that are technically not within the definition of high-speed rail in China, as well as ridership from EMU train sets serving routes on conventional track or routes that combine high-speed track and conventional track.[206] Nevertheless, by any measure, high-speed rail ridership in China has grown rapidly with expansion of the high-speed rail network and EMU service since 2008.
China is the third country, after Japan and France, to have one billion cumulative HSR passengers. In 2018, annual ridership on EMU train sets, which encompasses officially defined high-speed rail service as well as certain sub-high-speed service routes, accounted for about two-thirds of all regional rail trips (not including urban trains) in China.[206] At the end of 2018, cumulative passengers delivered by EMU trains is reported to be over 9 billion.[206]
Technology
Rolling stock
China Railway High-speed runs different
Maglev
In October 2016 China's CRRC announced that it was beginning research and development on a 600 km/h (373 mph) Maglev train and would build a 5 km (3.1 mi) test track.[211] In June 2020, a trial run was conducted at Tongji University. A planned launch of the maglev train was set for 2025.[212]
Track technology
Many of the Passenger Designated Lines use ballastless tracks, which allow for smoother train rides at high speeds and can withstand heavy use without warping. The ballastless track technology, imported from Germany, carries higher upfront costs but can reduce maintenance costs.[213][214]
Typical application of track technology in China high-speed lines
Type | Classify | Technology | line |
CRTSIs | slab track | RTRI, Japan | Hada PDL |
CRTSIIs | slab track | Max Bögl, Germany | Jingjin ICL |
CRTSIIIs | slab track | CRCC,China | Chengguan PDL |
CRTSIIb | ballastless track | Züblin, Germany | Zhengxi PDL |
Technology export
Chinese train-makers and rail builders have signed agreements to build HSRs in
In January 2014, the China Railway Construction Corporation completed a 30 km (19 mi) section of the
In 2015, China Railway signed up to design a high-speed railway line between the Russian cities of Moscow and Kazan. Russian state-owned railway corporation JSC Russian Railways cooperated with China Railway Group to plan for a 770-kilometer high-speed rail between the two Russian cities. The estimated total cost of the design contract is 20.8 billion rubles ($383 million) for two years.[221] Once the designs are developed, a separate tender will be held for the construction of the rail link, which Russian Railways expects to cost 1.06 trillion rubles ($19.5 billion).[222]
In October 2023, Indonesia launched the first high-speed railway in Southeast Asia, named Whoosh, connecting Indonesia's capital Jakarta and its economic hub Bandung.[223][224][225] As part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, the project cost $7.3 billion and was primarily funded by Chinese banks. As per the agreement, China Railway provided high-speed rail technologies and operational knowledge to Indonesia while China Railway Construction Corporation (CRCC) completed the line. The line is operated by Kereta Cepat Indonesia China. According to Western analysts, this is the first complete high-speed rail export project offered by China and signifies China's growing geopolitical influence in the region.[226][227][228][229][230] Indonesia and Chinese authorities discussed further plans to extend the railway across the Java island.[231][232]
Records
Fastest trains in China
The "fastest" train commercial service can be defined alternatively by a train's top speed or average trip speed.
- The fastest commercial train service measured by peak operational speed is the Shanghai Maglev Train which can reach 431 km/h (268 mph). Due to the limited length of the Shanghai Maglev track 30 km (18.6 mi), the maglev train's average trip speed is only 245.5 km/h (152.5 mph). During testing in 2003, the maglev train achieved the Chinese record speed of 501 km/h (311 mph).[233]
- The fastest commercial train service measured by average train speed is the CRH express service on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which reaches a top speed of 350 km/h (220 mph) and completes the 1,302 km (809 mi) journey between Shanghai Hongqiao and Beijing South, with two stops, in 4 hours and 24 min for an average speed of 291.9 km/h (181.4 mph), the fastest train service measured by average trip speed in the world.[234][235][236]
- The fastest timetabled start-to-stop runs between a station pair in the world are trains G17/G39 on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway averaging 317.7 km/h (197.4 mph) running non-stop between Beijing South to Nanjing South before continuing to other destinations.[237]
- The top speed attained by a non-maglev train in China is 487.3 km/h (302.8 mph) by a CRH380BL train on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway during a testing run on January 10, 2011.[238]
Longest service distance
The trains G403/404 and G405/406 for the
See also
- China Railway High-speed
- Fastest trains in China
- List of high-speed railway lines
- Rail transport in China
- Media related to High-speed rail in China at Wikimedia Commons
- High-speed rail in China travel guide from Wikivoyage
Notes
- Taiwan Areaalong with THSR in the figure.
- ^ Sichuan–Tibet railway is incorporated into the national high-speed rail service with the China Railway CR200J high-speed train.[7]
- Zhuhai Station, which is served by the HSR network, is located parallel to the Mainland-Macau border, serving also as a de facto station for the land-constrained Macau.
- ^ According to Xinhua News Agency, the aggregate results of the six “Speed Up Campaigns” were: boosting passenger train speed on 22,000 km (14,000 mi) of tracks to 120 km/h (75 mph), on 14,000 km (8,700 mi) of tracks to 160 km/h (99 mph), on 2,876 km (1,787 mi) of tracks to 200 km/h (124 mph) and on 846 km (526 mi) of tracks to 250 km/h (155 mph).[23] According to China Daily, however, there were 6,003 km (3,730 mi) of tracks capable of 200 km/h (124 mph) in April 2007.[24]
Further reading
- Yan, Karl (2023). "Market-creating states: rethinking China's high-speed rail development". Review of International Political Economy.
References
Citations
- ^ "Length of Beijing-HK rail network same as Equator". www.thestar.com.my. Retrieved 2022-01-01.
- ^ Ma, Yujia (马玉佳). "New high-speed trains on drawing board- China.org.cn". www.china.org.cn. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
- ^ Preston, Robert (3 January 2023). "China opens 4100km of new railway". International Railway Journal.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4648-1425-9.
- ^ "Full speed ahead for China's high-speed rail network in 2019". South China Morning Post. 2019-01-03. Retrieved 2019-06-23.
- ^ "China builds the world's longest high-speed rail as a rail stalls in the U.S." finance.yahoo.com. 21 February 2019. Retrieved 2019-06-23.
- ^ "China-Tibet bullet trains to commence operations before July". Railway Technology. 8 March 2021.
- ^ "World's Longest Fast Train Line Opens in China". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 29 December 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
- ^ "China's High-Speed Rail, the world's longest high-speed railway network, is now losing $24 million per day with a reported debt of $1.8 trillion". 13 November 2021.
- ^ a b "China Railway's debt nears $900bn under expansion push".
- ^ Gerald Ollivier, Richard Bullock, Ying Jin and Nanyan Zhou, "High-Speed Railways in China: A Look at Traffic" World Bank China Transport Topics No. 11 December 2014, accessed 2017-07-17
- ^ "China's Experience with High Speed Rail Offers Lessons for Other Countries". World Bank. Retrieved 2022-09-20.
- ^ "Is the HSR worth it?". MacroPolo. Retrieved 2021-01-24.
we estimate that the HSR network confers a net benefit of $378 billion to the Chinese economy and has an annual ROI of 6.5%.
- ^ a b c Ministry of Railways 2013, Art. 5.
- ^ See ridership section for further details.
- ^ a b Louise Young. Japan's Total Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press 1998. pp. 246–67.
- ^ "China's High-Speed Rail Dream" (PDF).
- ^ a b c 京沪高速铁路的论证历程大事记 (in Chinese). Retrieved 2010-10-04.
- ^ 高铁时代. 中国国家地理网 (in Chinese (China)). 2010-04-07. Archived from the original on 2012-07-19. Retrieved 2010-10-05.
- ^ By the mid-1990s, average train speed in China was about 60 km/h (37 mph). (Chinese) "China plans five-year leap forward of railway development " Accessed 2006-09-30
- ^ 中国铁道部六次大提速. Sina News (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2010-10-04.
- ^ "(Chinese)". News.cctv.com. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ 中国高铁"十一五"发展纪实:驶向未来 (in Chinese (China)). Xinhua News Agenc y. 2010-09-25. Archived from the original on 2015-01-13. Retrieved 2015-05-09.
- ^ Dingding, Xin (2007-04-18). "Bullet trains set to join fastest in the world". China Daily. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-05-09 – via HighBeam Research.
- ^ a b "International Railway Journal – Rail And Rapid Transit Industry News Worldwide". Archived from the original on August 15, 2007.
- ^ MacLeod, Calum (June 1, 2011). "China slows its runaway high-speed rail expansion". USA Today. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ 铁道部官员深入解析:未来我国铁路布局. 中国经济网 (in Chinese (China)). 2009-01-19. Archived from the original on 2012-07-01. Retrieved 2020-02-08.
- ^ (Chinese)[1] Accessed 2010-10-13
- ^ "Hundreds protest Shanghai maglev rail extension". Reuters. Jan 12, 2008. Archived from the original on November 13, 2015. Retrieved July 1, 2017.
- ^ "Rail track beats Maglev in Beijing–Shanghai High Speed Railway". People's Daily. 2004-01-18. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ "Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Line, China". Railway-technology.com. 2011-06-15. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ a b c d e f 中国式高铁的诞生与成长. Xinhua (in Chinese). March 4, 2010. Archived from the original on May 10, 2010.
- ^ 日本等待中国'求婚' (in Chinese). 2003-08-06. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2010-08-15.
- ^ "Violence flares as the Chinese rage at Japan" Guardian 2005-04-17
- ^ "High speed Train CRH1 – China" Bombardier Archived 2010-09-19 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 2010-08-14
- ^ "Kawasaki Wins High-Speed Train Order for China" 2004–10 Archived June 8, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "How Japan Profits From China's Plans" Forbes 2009-10-26
- ^ CRH5型动车组详细资料. 中国铁路网 (in Chinese). 2009-11-18. Archived from the original on 2011-07-08. Retrieved 2010-08-15.
- ^ 庞巴迪:靠什么"赢在中国"——专访庞巴迪中国区总裁兼首席代表张剑炜 (in Chinese (China)). Worldrailway.com.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-17.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Japan Inc Shoots Itself on the Foot". Financial Times. 2010-07-08. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ "Era of "Created in China"". Chinapictorial.com.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ "China: A future on track". Xinkaishi.typepad.com. 2010-10-05. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ 汪玮 (2011-07-08). "China denies Japan's rail patent-infringement claims. On 2011-07-24. Retrieved 2011-07-25". China.org.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ "First Chinese designed HS train breaks cover". International Railway Journal. September 2010. Archived from the original on 2012-07-08. Retrieved 2010-11-03.
- ^ "China's 'Super-Speed' Train Hits 500km". 2010-10-20. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2010-11-03.
- ^ a b c d Bradsher, Keith (2010-02-12). "Keith Bradsher, "China Sees Growth Engine in a Web of Fast Trains"". The New York Times. China; United States. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ a b c "China to Bid on US High-Speed Rail Projects" A.P. March 13, 2010 Archived March 17, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d Forsythe, Michael (2009-12-22). "Michael Forsythe "Letter from China: Is China's Economy Speeding Off the Rails?"". The New York Times. China. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ a b 2004年国家《中长期铁路网规划》内容简介 (in Chinese). 2014-05-27. Retrieved 2017-07-16.
- ^ a b "China's fastest high speed train 380A rolls off production line" Xinhua Archived 2010-05-30 at the Wayback Machine 2010-05-27
- 163.com(in Chinese (China)). 2010-11-02.
- xinhuanet (2011-02-04). "High-speed rail broadens range of options for China's New Year travel". Archived from the originalon February 9, 2011. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ 2011年中国铁路将投资7000亿元_公司频道_财新网 (in Chinese (China)). Business.caing.com. 2011-01-05. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ a b c "Off the rails?". The Economist. 2011-03-31.
- ^ "China finds 187 mln yuan embezzled from Beijing-Shanghai railway project". News.xinhuanet.com. 2011-03-23. Archived from the original on November 7, 2012. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ Moore, Malcolm (2011-08-01). "Chinese rail crash scandal: 'official steals $2.8 billion'". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 2012-04-27.
- ^ a b c d "China acts on high-speed rail safety fears". Financial Times. 2011-04-14. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ a b c d "China Puts Brakes on High-Speed Trains" The Wall Street Journal 2011-04-17
- ^ "China slows down showcase bullet trains" Bloomberg Businessweek 2011-04-17
- ^ "World's longest high-speed train to decelerate a bit". People's Daily Online. 2011-04-15.
- ^ "The Backlash Is Brewing Against Chinese High-Speed Rail: Here's Why It's In Trouble" Business Insider 2011-04-17
- ^ "Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway to run trials". News.xinhuanet.com. 2011-05-11. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ 叫停津秦高铁跟刘志军落马无关. 齐鲁晚报 (in Chinese). QQ Finance. May 27, 2011.
- ^ 环保部叫停津秦铁路、胶济铁路两高铁建设运行. The Beijing News (in Chinese). Sohu. 2011-05-19.
- ^ Yan, Weijue (June 7, 2011). "China not slowing high-speed rail construction". China Daily. Retrieved 2020-02-09.
- 163.com. 2010-11-02.
- ^ 京沪高铁2010年审计未发现重大质量问题. Sina Finance (in Chinese (China)). 2011-03-23.
- ^ "Train speed claims were false".
- ^ "Railway cuts bullet trains from schedule | Sunday Digest". China Daily. 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ Johnson, Ian (2011-07-24). "Train Wreck in China Heightens Unease on Safety Standards". The New York Times.
- ^ a b Watt, Louise (2011-07-25). "Crash raises doubts about China's fast rail plans". Washington Times. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ Tania Branigan in Beijing and agencies (2011-08-12). "Chinese bullet trains recalled in wake of fatal crash | World news". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ Lafraniere, Sharon (2011-07-28). "Five Days Later, Chinese Concede Design Flaw Had Role in Wreck". The New York Times.
- ^ Reinoso, Jose (2011-07-29). "Un error en las señales causó el choque de trenes chinos". El País Archivo (in Spanish). Retrieved 2015-10-17.
- ^ "La signalisation mise en cause dans l'accident du Pékin-Shanghaď". Le Monde (in French). France. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ "La sécurité des TGV chinois de plus en plus contestée". Le Monde (in French). France. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ "First fatal crash on Chinese high speed line". Railway Gazette International.
- ^ Martin Patience (2011-07-28). "China train crash: Signal design flaw blamed". BBC.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ Cherry Wilson (2011-07-23). "China train crash kills 32 The Observer". Guardian. UK. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ Martin Patience (2011-07-28). "China train crash: Signal design flaw blamed". BBC. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ Coonan, Clifford (2011-08-12). "Outrage at Wenzhou disaster pushes China to suspend bullet train project". The Independent. London. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ "China's High-Speed Rail Accident 'Struck a Nerve' | The Rundown News Blog". PBS NewsHour. 2011-08-10. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ Pilling, David (2011-08-03). "China crashes into a middle class revolt". FT.com. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ a b "'Design flaws' caused China crash". 2011-12-28. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
- ^ a b "How China's Train Tragedy Unfolded". The Wall Street Journal. Associated Press. 29 December 2011.
- ^ "China steps up train safety amid anger after cras". The Guardian. UK. 2011-08-10. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ "China freezes new railway projects after high-speed train crash". Reuters. 2011-08-10. Archived from the original on 2011-08-17. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ "China train crash: Design flaws to blame – safety chief". BBC. 2011-08-12. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ Rabinovitch, Simon (2011-08-11). "China suspends new high speed rail plans". FT.com. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ "China freezes new railway projects after high-speed train crash". Reuters. 2011-08-10. Archived from the original on 2011-08-17. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ "Decision to slow trains met with mixed response|Nation|chinadaily.com.cn". www.chinadaily.com.cn.
- ^ "More high-speed trains slow down to improve safety|Society|chinadaily.com.cn". www.chinadaily.com.cn.
- ^ "CapitalVue News: China Cuts Ticket Price Of High Speed Rail". Capitalvue.com. 2011-08-12. Archived from the original on 2012-03-23. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ a b c d Rabinovitch, Simon (2011-10-27). "China's high-speed rail plans falter". China: Financial Times. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
- ^ a b "China's high speed rail projects on hold due to cash crunch". Economic Times. 2011-10-27. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
- ^ a b c 中国铁路建设大规模停工 建设重点出现调整. International Business Times (in Chinese). 2011-10-26. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
- ^ 铁道部负债近2万亿 净资产收益率偏低. infzm.com (in Chinese). 2011-07-19. Archived from the original on 2013-01-26. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
- ^ a b c d 铁路建设9成缺钱停工 多地高铁项目拖欠工人工资停工. 中国经营网 (in Chinese). 2011-10-26.
- ^ 铁路工地一线直击:2700亿掀不起复工潮. Sohu Stocks (in Chinese). 2011-12-14. Archived from the original on 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2011-12-13.
- ^ a b 揭秘:贵广高铁如何穿越喀斯特. 南方都市报 (in Chinese). 2014-12-26.
- ^ 陈清浩, "贵广高铁正式开通运营 从贵阳到广州4小时可达". 南方日报 (in Chinese). 2014-12-26.
- ^ a b c Simon Rabinovitch, “China’s high-speed rail gets back on track” ‘’Financial Times’’ 2013-01-16
- ^ a b c 铁路2014年投资8088亿元 超额完成全年计划. 人民网. 2015-01-30. Retrieved 2015-01-30.
- ^ Fischer, Elizabeth (2012-11-21). "China's high-speed rail revolution". Railway-technology.com. Retrieved 2013-05-04.
- ^ Shasha, Deng (2012-12-26). "World's longest high-speed rail line makes debut". Xinhua. Archived from the original on December 31, 2012. Retrieved 2013-05-04.
- ^ "China High Speed Train Development and Investment". The China Perspective. 2012-12-27. Archived from the original on 2013-05-13. Retrieved 2015-10-17.
- ^ a b "Sound financials recharge China's fast trains". marketwatch.com. 2012-09-10. Retrieved 2013-02-03.
- ^ a b c "Bullet trains trigger profit growth for railways". The Irish Times. 2012-09-25. Retrieved 2013-02-03.
- ^ a b "China's high-speed rail still reporting staggering losses". chinawatch.com. 2013-02-03. Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 2013-02-03.
- ^ "China's railways mileage tops 100,000 km" Xinhua 2013-12-28
- ^ 中国高铁版图再扩容:兰新、贵广、南广高铁今日开通. 中国新闻网 (in Chinese (China)). 2014-12-26.
- ^ Ifeng. 2014-12-28.
- ^ a b 12月10日起铁路再调图. Xinhua (in Chinese). 2014-11-15. Archived from the original on December 1, 2014.
- ^ 7月1日全国铁路再调图 增开动车组列车53对. 人民日报 (in Chinese). 2014-06-12.
- ^ a b c d 发改委再批复两城市铁路规划 总投资超2000亿. 中证网 (in Chinese). Sina Finance. 2014-12-22.
- ^ 郑州-重庆万州高铁获批 中部再添开发主轴. Sohu News (in Chinese). 2014-10-10.
- ^ 临沂至曲阜客运专线并轨京沪高铁获批 连云港至镇江高铁获批 预计2019年下半年通车. QQ Jiangsu (in Chinese). 2014-11-07.
- ^ 临沂至曲阜客运专线并轨京沪高铁获批. Sohu News (in Chinese). 2014-12-16.
- ^ 哈牡客运专线项目启动建设 打通亚欧国际货运大通道. 东北网 (in Chinese). 2014-12-18. Archived from the original on 2014-12-22. Retrieved 2014-12-20.
- ^ 浙江11条城际铁路线昨日获批 2020年前将全部建成 (in Chinese). 2014-12-18. Archived from the original on 2014-12-22. Retrieved 2014-12-20.
- ^ "Chinese Trainmakers To Merge And Form Export Powerhouse" AFP 2014-12-03
- ^ 中国高铁盈利地图:东部线路赚翻 中西部巨亏(图)-新华网. Xinhua (in Chinese (China)). 2016-08-02. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
- ^ Staff, WSJ (20 July 2016). "China's Busiest High-Speed Rail Line Makes a Fast Buck". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
- ^ 中國高鐵"八縱八橫"線路確定 包含京台高鐵. Sina News (in Chinese).
- ^ 十年内高铁运营里程将翻倍 贯通特大城市可采用时速350公里标准. 每经网 (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2016-10-13.
- ^ chinanews. 2017年中国铁路投资8010亿元 投产新线3038公里-中新网. www.chinanews.com (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2018-01-13.
- ^ "China's high-speed rail lines top 37,900 at end of 2020 – Xinhua | English.news.cn". www.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved 2021-01-10.
- ^ "China to Expand High-Speed Rail Network to 50,000 Kilometers by 2025". BrixSweden.org. 23 January 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
- ^ https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202401/09/WS659d49b1a3105f21a507b691.html
- ^ 高铁刷新百姓出行选择. jtyss.ndrc.gov.cn (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2018-05-07.
- ^ a b Cao, Yu, Liang, Hua, Haili, Ning, Dongmei, Aifang (March 28, 2011). 高铁通向何方. Caixin (in Chinese (China)).
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ 国务院处理温州动车追尾事故54名责任人_新闻中心_新浪网. Sina News (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2018-05-07.
- ^ Ollivier, Gerald; Sondhi, Jitendra; Zhou, Nanyan (July 2014). "High-Speed Railways in China: A Look at Construction Costs" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved Apr 22, 2024.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-350-25231-8.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-05-07.
- ^ electricbloomhosting (2014-07-14). "Why China can build high-speed rail so cheaply". Global Construction Review. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
- ISBN 978-1-4648-1425-9.
- ^ "Construction". World Bank.
- ^ a b Beck, Bente, Schilling, Arne, Heiner, Martin (May 2013). "Railway Efficiency – An Overview and a Look at Opportunities for Improvement" (PDF). International Transport Forum.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Thompson, Bente, Louis, Heiner (November 2014). "What is rail efficiency and how can it be changed?" (PDF). International Transport Forum – via Econstor.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "RAILISA STAT UIC". uic-stats.uic.org. Retrieved 2019-01-06.
- ^ 国家安监总局公布温州动车事故调查报告(全文). Sohu News (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2018-05-07.
- ^ a b c d Freeman, Will (2010-06-02). "Freeman & Kroeber, "Opinion: China's Fast Track to Development"". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ Ollivier, Gerald. "High-Speed Railways in China: A Look at Traffic" (PDF).
- ^ a b Bradsher, Keith (2009-01-22). "Keith Bradsher, "China's Route Forward"". The New York Times. China. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ China's amazing new bullet train CNN Money August 6, 2009
- ^ "Shanghai, Shenzhen, Beijing Lead Prospects in ULI's China Cities Survey". Urban Land Magazine. 2016-10-03. Retrieved 2017-03-13.
- ^ "China's high-speed-rail network and the development of second-tier cities". JournalistsResource.org, retrieved Feb. 20, 2014.
- ^ "Japan Inc shoots itself in foot on bullet train". Ft.com. 2010-07-08. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ 高铁盈利地图:东部赚翻 中西部普遍巨亏. Sina Finance (in Chinese (China)). 2016-08-01. Retrieved 2018-05-07.
- ^ a b c d e f g 铁道部有意打包高铁资产 成立资产管理公司. 中财网 (in Chinese). 2010-09-25. Archived from the original on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2010-10-02.
- ^ Shelley Smith "Yuan Bond Sales Climb to Record Led by Railways: China Credit" Bloomberg 2010-10-13
- ^ 我国首条快速客运专线"秦沈客运专线"开通. news.sina.com.cn (in Chinese). 2003-10-12.
- ^ 合宁铁路今天通车运营. ah.people.com.cn (in Chinese). 2008-04-18. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18.
- ^ 胶济铁路客运专线施工进入决战阶段 (in Chinese (China)). Archived from the original on 2011-07-26.
- ^ 石太铁路客运专线. China Railway (in Chinese (China)). Archived from the original on 2011-07-08. Retrieved 2010-12-24.
- ^ 合武铁路昨建成通车. Sina News (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ 甬台温铁路客运专线8月1日开通 (in Chinese (China)). Archived from the original on 2011-07-08.
- ^ 温福铁路温州段明天通货运 温州将迎来高铁时代. 温州网 (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ 福厦高铁正式开通运营 打造绿色环保"快车道" (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 2011-07-20.
- ^ "China Daily Website - Connecting China Connecting the World" 成灌快铁开通四川迈入快铁时代. China Daily (in Chinese (China)).[dead link]
- ^ 昌九城际高铁今日开通 江西迈入高铁时代 (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ 东北首条城际高速铁路开通 总投资达96亿(组图) (in Chinese (China)). Archived from the original on 2011-01-14.
- ^ 东环铁今开通 本报今推《东环铁乘车指南》 (in Chinese (China)). Archived from the original on 2011-07-11.
- ^ 京津城际铁路通车新闻发布会 (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ 武广快线驶出中国新速度. China Daily (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ Sina News 郑西高速铁路昨成功试运行 (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ 沪宁城际高铁通车 沪宁对开客运列车每日近百对 (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ 沪杭高铁简介及线路站点图示 (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ 京沪高铁开通首日上座率达98% (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 2011-07-04.
- ^ Ifeng. 2010-09-18.
- ^ 京津城际高铁二线拟明年开工 或通过三河、香河、大厂. hexun.com (in Chinese). 2014-12-20.
- ^ Ifeng. 2010-09-30.
- ^ "Bullet trains trigger profit growth for railways" The Irish Times September 25, 2012
- ^ "中国高铁盈利地图:东部线路赚翻 中西部巨亏(图)-新华网". news.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved 2017-07-03.
- ^ 火爆城际铁路的上座率考验. 第一财经日报 (in Chinese). 2014-12-24. Archived from the original on 2014-12-27. Retrieved 2014-12-27.
- Ifeng. 2014-12-11.
- ^ a b Bradsher, Keith (2013-09-24). "Speedy Trains Transform China". New York Times. Retrieved 2013-09-26.
- ^ "谨防高铁灰犀牛". finance.sina.com.cn. January 28, 2019.
- ^ "China's Experience with High Speed Rail Offers Lessons for Other Countries". The World Bank. 8 July 2019.
- ^ G.,Liu,Ziming, Lawrence,Martha B. ,Bullock,Richard. "China's High-Speed Rail Development". World Bank. Retrieved 2023-09-03.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d 高铁分流民航客源:多条短程航班停飞. infzm.com (in Chinese). 2011-04-06. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-10-25.
- ^ Chen, Frank (August 24, 2020). "China sets railway building spree in high-speed motion". Asia Times.
- ^ National Development and Reform Commission 2016, pp. 7–10.
- People's Daily Online. July 21, 2016.
- ^ National Development and Reform Commission 2016, pp. 8–9.
- ^ National Development and Reform Commission 2016, pp. 9–10.
- ^ (Chinese)"超越——中国昂首跨入高铁时代_时政频道_新华网". Archived from the original on 2010-10-19. Retrieved 2010-10-17. 2010-10-16
- ^ "No timetable yet for Shanghai-Hangzhou maglev line: official". Xinhua News Agency. March 23, 2010. Archived from the original on June 9, 2011. Retrieved March 23, 2010.
- ^ "Beijing's first maglev line resumes construction". China Daily. April 22, 2015.
- ^ 严茂强. "Maglev line opens to tourists in Fenghuang". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2023-12-31.
- ^ "All Existing and U/C Maglev Lines in 2020". MaglevNET. January 9, 2020. Retrieved April 5, 2020.
- ^ 世界银行:中国高铁作为出行新选择快速发展. www.shihang.org (in Simplified Chinese). 2014-12-19.
- ^ 把脉中国高铁发展计划:高铁运行头三年 (PDF). worldbank.org (in Simplified Chinese). 2012-02-01.
- ^ F_404. "High-speed rail construction not suspended – People's Daily Online". en.people.cn.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Error" 中国高速铁路: 运量分析 (PDF) (in Chinese). World Bank. December 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-21. Retrieved 2015-10-17.
- ^ 铁路2014年投资8088亿元 超额完成全年计划-财经-人民网. people.com.cn (in Chinese). 2015-01-30. Retrieved 2015-10-17.
- ^ 新华网_让新闻离你更近. Xinhua (in Chinese (China)). Archived from the original on July 22, 2016.
- ^ "China Railway sets out 2017 targets – International Railway Journal". 4 January 2017.
- ^ "China Exclusive: Five bln trips made on China's bullet trains". Xinhua English. 2016-07-21. Archived from the original on July 22, 2016.
- ^ chinanews. 2017年中国铁路投资8010亿元 投产新线3038公里-中新网. www.chinanews.com (in Chinese (China)).
- ^ 中国铁路2018年成绩:旅客发送量33.7亿人次 货物发送量40.22亿吨. 央视财经 (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2019-01-30.
- ^ "China's railways report 3.57b passenger trips in 2019". China Daily. Retrieved 2020-01-04.
- ^ Luk, Glenn (2023-04-12). "charts & data | 2023.04.12". reading, writing & investing. Retrieved 2023-09-06.
- ^ IfengNews (in Chinese (China)). 2019-01-01. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
- ^ a b Shirouzu, Norihiko (2010-11-17). "Train Makers Rail Against China's High-Speed Designs". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2012-12-26.
- ^ Wines, Michael; Bradsher, Keith (2011-02-17). "China Rail Chief's Firing Hints at Trouble". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
Many multinational companies also resent China for tweaking foreign designs and building the equipment itself rather than importing it.
- ^ Johnson, Ian (2011-06-13). "High-Speed Trains in China to Run Slower, Ministry Says". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
In the past few months, some foreign companies that sold China its high-speed technology said the trains were not designed to operate at 215 miles per hour. The ministry said that Chinese engineers had improved on the foreign technology and that the trains were safe at the higher speeds.
- ^ Xin, Dingding (2011-06-28). "Full steam ahead for high-speed rail patents overseas". China Daily. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
- ^ "Chinese firm launches R&D on 600 km/h maglev train". 2016-10-22. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
- ^ "China to step up testing on fastest-ever maglev train". South China Morning Post. 2020-08-11. Retrieved 2020-10-15.
- ^ "GC Ticker June–July 2009". Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ "WuGuang High Speed Rail Project". Docstoc.com. 2010-02-05. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ Keith Bradsher (2010-04-08). "China Is Eager to Bring High-Speed Rail Expertise to the U.S." The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
- ^ Ben Otto and Anita Rachman (2015-09-30). "Indonesia's Handling of High-speed Train Project Adds to Business Confusion, Mixed Messages to Japan, China Come as Indonesia courts foreign investors". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2015-10-01.
- ^ "Siemens joins China bid for Saudi Haramain project" Archived 2011-08-26 at the Wayback Machine March 24, 2010
- ^ "China Is Eager to Bring High-Speed Rail Expertise to the U.S." N.Y. Times 2010-04-10
- ^ "GE and China MOR Sign Strategic MOU to Advance High-Speed Rail Opportunities in the U.S." 3blmedia.com. 2009-11-17. Archived from the original on 2012-03-10. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- ^ Chinese Firm Constructs High-Speed Railway in Turkey 2014-01-18
- ^ Dore, Louis (21 June 2015). "China to design new high-speed Russian railway between Moscow and Kazan". The Independent.
- ^ Sonne, Paul (19 June 2015). "China to Design New Russian High-Speed Railway". The Wall Street Journal.
- ^ AFP (1 October 2023). "Indonesia to launch Jakarta-Bandung high-speed rail, first in Southeast Asia". Jakarta Post.
- ^ Karmini, Niniek (1 October 2023). "Indonesia is set to launch Southeast Asia's first high-speed railway, largely funded by China". The Independent.
- ^ Ibrahim, Achmad; Karmini, Niniek (2 October 2023). "Indonesian president launches Southeast Asia's first high-speed railway, funded by China". Associate Press.
- ^ Malleck, Julia (2 October 2023). "Why China laid the tracks for Indonesia's first high-speed rail".
- ^ Cai, Derek (2 October 2023). "With China's help, Indonesia launches Southeast Asia's first bullet train". CNN.
- ^ Asmara, Chandra (2 October 2023). "Indonesia Starts Southeast Asia's First High-Speed Rail Operations". Bloomberg.
- ^ Richard Lloyd Parry (2 October 2023). "Whoosh: Indonesia launches China-backed bullet train". The Times UK.
- ^ "Indonesia launches Southeast Asia's fastest train". DW. 2 October 2023.
- ^ Sulaiman, Stefanno (6 September 2023). "China, Indonesia discuss extending Jakarta high-speed railway". Reuters.
- ^ Ismail, Saifulbahri (14 August 2023). "With Indonesia's high-speed rail set to launch in September, authorities look to Surabaya for phase two". CNA.
- ^ "Shanghai Maglev Train (431 km/h) - High Definition Video". shanghaichina.ca.
- ^ 京沪高铁明提速 "复兴号"将在中途超车"和谐号". Caixin Companies (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2018-12-03.
- ^ "China restores bullet train speed to 350 km/h – Xinhua | English.news.cn". www.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on January 30, 2018. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
- ^ "China begins to restore 350 kmh bullet train – Xinhua | English.news.cn". www.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
- ^ "China powers ahead as new entrants clock in" (PDF). Railway Gazette International. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-07-09. Retrieved 2019-07-09.
- ^ 中国北车刷新高铁运营试验世界纪录速度(图)-搜狐证券 (in Chinese (China)). Sohu Stocks. Archived from the original on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
- ^ "China launches longest high-speed train service" China Daily 2017-01-05
- ^ 北京西至北海将开通全国运行里程最长动车. 中国青年报 (in Chinese (China)). Sina News. 2016-06-15.
Sources
- Ministry of Railways (2013-01-09). 中华人民共和国铁道部令 第34号 铁路主要技术政策 [Ministry of Railways Order No. 34: Primary Railway Technology Policy]. GOV.cn (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2017-07-30.
- National Development and Reform Commission (October 2008). 中长期铁路网规划(2008年调整) [Mid- to Long-Term Railway Network Plan (2008 Revision)] (PDF). NDRC.gov.cn (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2017-07-30.
- National Development and Reform Commission (2016-07-13). 中长期铁路网规划" (2016) 发改基础(2016)1536号 [Mid- to Long-Term Railway Network Plan (2016 Revision)] (PDF). NDRC.gov.cn (in Chinese (China)). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-07-30. Retrieved 2017-07-30.
External links
Media related to High-speed rail in China at Wikimedia Commons