Sequoiadendron giganteum
Sequoiadendron giganteum | |
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The "Grizzly Giant" in the Mariposa Grove, Yosemite National Park | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Gymnospermae |
Division: | Pinophyta |
Class: | Pinopsida |
Order: | Cupressales
|
Family: | Cupressaceae |
Genus: | Sequoiadendron |
Species: | S. giganteum
|
Binomial name | |
Sequoiadendron giganteum | |
Natural range of the California members of the subfamily Sequoioideae
red – Sequoiadendron giganteum
green – Sequoia sempervirens
|
Sequoiadendron giganteum, also known as the giant sequoia, giant redwood or Sierra redwood is a
The giant sequoia is listed as an endangered species by the IUCN with fewer than 80,000 trees remaining in its native California, but its numbers are growing in other parts of the world.[4][5]
The Giant sequoia grow to an average height of 50–85 m (164–279 ft) with trunk diameters ranging from 6–8 m (20–26 ft). Record trees have been measured at 94.8 m (311 ft) tall. The specimen known to have the greatest diameter at breast height is the General Grant tree at 8.8 m (28.9 ft). Giant sequoias are among the oldest living organisms on Earth. The oldest known giant sequoia is 3,200–3,266 years old.
Wood from mature giant sequoias is fibrous and brittle; trees would often shatter after they were felled. The wood was unsuitable for construction and instead used for fence posts or match sticks. The giant sequoia is a very popular
Etymology
The etymology of the genus name has been presumed—initially in The Yosemite Book by Josiah Whitney in 1868[6]—to be in honor of Sequoyah (1767–1843), who was the inventor of the Cherokee syllabary.[7] An etymological study published in 2012 concluded that Austrian Stephen L. Endlicher is responsible for the name. A linguist and botanist, Endlicher corresponded with experts in the Cherokee language including Sequoyah, whom he admired. He also realized that coincidentally the genus could be described in Latin as sequi (meaning to follow) because the number of seeds per cone in the newly classified genus aligned in mathematical sequence with the other four genera in the suborder. Endlicher thus coined the name "Sequoia" as both a description of the tree's genus and an honor to the indigenous man he admired.[8]
Description
Giant sequoia specimens are the most massive individual trees in the world.[3] They grow to an average height of 50–85 m (164–279 ft) with trunk diameters ranging from 6–8 m (20–26 ft). Record trees have been measured at 94.8 m (311 ft) tall. Trunk diameters of 17 m (56 ft) have been claimed via research figures taken out of context.[9] The specimen known to have the greatest diameter at breast height is the General Grant tree at 8.8 m (28.9 ft).[10] Between 2014 and 2016, it is claimed that specimens of coast redwood were found to have greater trunk diameters than all known giant sequoias - though this has not been independently verified or affirmed in any academic literature.[11] The trunks of coast redwoods taper at lower heights than those of giant sequoias which have more columnar trunks that maintain larger diameters to greater heights.
The oldest known giant sequoia is 3,200–3,266 years old based on
The giant sequoia regenerates by seed. The seed cones are 4–7 cm (1+1⁄2–3 in) long and mature in 18–20 months, though they typically remain green and closed for as long as 20 years. Each cone has 30–50 spirally arranged scales, with several seeds on each scale, giving an average of 230 seeds per cone. Seeds are dark brown, 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) long, and 1 mm (0.04 in) broad, with a 1-millimeter (0.04 in) wide, yellow-brown wing along each side. Some seeds shed when the cone scales shrink during hot weather in late summer, but most are liberated by insect damage or when the cone dries from the heat of fire. Young trees start to bear cones after 12 years.
Trees may produce sprouts from their stumps subsequent to injury, until about 20 years old; however, shoots do not form on the stumps of mature trees as they do on coast redwoods. Giant sequoias of all ages may sprout from their boles when branches are lost to fire or breakage.
A large tree may have as many as 11,000 cones. Cone production is greatest in the upper portion of the canopy. A mature giant sequoia disperses an estimated 300–400 thousand seeds annually. The winged seeds may fly as far as 180 m (590 ft) from the parent tree.
Lower branches die readily from being shaded, but trees younger than 100 years retain most of their dead branches. Trunks of mature trees in groves are generally free of branches to a height of 20–50 m (70–160 ft), but solitary trees retain lower branches.
Distribution
The natural distribution of giant sequoias is restricted to a limited area of the western
The giant sequoia is usually found in a humid climate characterized by dry summers and snowy winters. Most giant sequoia groves are on granitic-based residual and alluvial soils. The elevation of the giant sequoia groves generally ranges from 1,400–2,000 m (4,600–6,600 ft) in the north, to 1,700–2,150 metres (5,580–7,050 ft) to the south. Giant sequoias generally occur on the south-facing sides of northern mountains, and on the northern faces of more southerly slopes.
High levels of reproduction are not necessary to maintain the present population levels. Few groves, however, have sufficient young trees to maintain the present density of mature giant sequoias for the future. The majority of giant sequoia groves are currently undergoing a gradual decline in density since European settlement.
Pre-historic range
While the present day distribution of this species is limited to a small area of California, it was once much more widely distributed in prehistoric times, and was a reasonably common species in North American and Eurasian coniferous forests until its range was greatly reduced by the last ice age. Older fossil specimens reliably identified as giant sequoia have been found in Cretaceous era sediments from a number of sites in North America and Europe, and even as far afield as New Zealand[17] and Australia.[18]
Artificial groves
In 1974, a group of giant sequoias was planted by the United States Forest Service in the San Jacinto Mountains of Southern California in the immediate aftermath of a wildfire that left the landscape barren. The giant sequoias were rediscovered in 2008 by botanist Rudolf Schmid and his daughter Mena Schmidt while hiking on Black Mountain Trail through Hall Canyon. Black Mountain Grove is home to over 150 giant sequoias, some of which stand over 6.1 m (20 ft) tall. This grove is not to be confused with the Black Mountain Grove in the southern Sierra. Nearby Lake Fulmor Grove is home to seven giant sequoias, the largest of which is 20 m (66 ft) tall. The two groves are located approximately 175 mi (282 km) southeast of the southernmost naturally occurring giant sequoia grove, Deer Creek Grove.[19][20]
It was later discovered that the
Ecology
Giant sequoias are in many ways adapted to forest fires. Their bark is unusually fire resistant, and their cones will normally open immediately after a fire.[22] Giant sequoias are a pioneer species,[23] and are having difficulty reproducing in their original habitat (and very rarely reproduce in cultivation) due to the seeds only being able to grow successfully in full sun and in mineral-rich soils, free from competing vegetation. Although the seeds can germinate in moist needle humus in the spring, these seedlings will die as the duff dries in the summer. They therefore require periodic wildfire to clear competing vegetation and soil humus before successful regeneration can occur. Without fire, shade-loving species will crowd out young sequoia seedlings, and sequoia seeds will not germinate. When fully grown, these trees typically require large amounts of water and are therefore often concentrated near streams.[citation needed] Squirrels, chipmunks, finches and sparrows consume the freshly sprouted seedlings, preventing their growth.[24]
Fires also bring hot air high into the canopy via
In addition to fire, two animal agents also assist giant sequoia seed release. The more significant of the two is a longhorn beetle (Phymatodes nitidus) that lays eggs on the cones, into which the larvae then bore holes. Reduction of the vascular water supply to the cone scales allows the cones to dry and open for the seeds to fall. Cones damaged by the beetles during the summer will slowly open over the next several months. Some research indicates many cones, particularly higher in the crowns, may need to be partially dried by beetle damage before fire can fully open them. The other agent is the Douglas squirrel (Tamiasciurus douglasi) that gnaws on the fleshy green scales of younger cones. The squirrels are active year-round, and some seeds are dislodged and dropped as the cone is eaten.[26]
More than 30 identified species of bird have been observed living in giant sequoia groves.[27][28]
Genome
The genome of the giant sequoia was published in 2020. The size of the giant sequoia genome is 8.125 Gb (8.125 billion base pairs) which were assembled into eleven chromosome-scale scaffolds, the largest to date of any organism.[29][30]
This is the first genome sequenced in the Cupressaceae family, and it provides insights into disease resistance and survival for this robust species on a genetic basis. The genome was found to contain over 900 complete or partial predicted NLR genes used by plants to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.
The genome sequence was extracted from a single fertilized seed harvested from a 1,360-year-old tree specimen in Sequoia/Kings Canyon National Park identified as SEGI 21. It was sequenced over a three-year period by researchers at University of California, Davis, Johns Hopkins University, University of Connecticut, and Northern Arizona University and was supported by grants from Save the Redwoods League and the National Institute of Food and Agriculture as part of a species conservation, restoration and management effort.[31]
Discovery and naming
The giant sequoia was well known to
The first reference to the giant sequoia by Europeans is in 1833, in the diary of the explorer J. K. Leonard; the reference does not mention any locality, but his route would have taken him through the Calaveras Grove.[32] Leonard's observation was not publicized. The next European to see the species was John M. Wooster, who carved his initials in the bark of the 'Hercules' tree in the Calaveras Grove in 1850; again, this observation received no publicity. Much more publicity was given to the "discovery" by Augustus T. Dowd of the Calaveras Grove in 1852, and this is commonly cited as the species' discovery by non-natives.[32] The tree found by Dowd, christened the 'Discovery Tree', was felled in 1853.
The first scientific naming of the species was by
In 1907, it was placed by
The nomenclatural oversights were finally corrected in 1939 by John Theodore Buchholz, who also pointed out the giant sequoia is distinct from the coast redwood at the genus level and coined the name Sequoiadendron giganteum for it.
The etymology of the genus name has been presumed—initially in The Yosemite Book by Josiah Whitney in 1868[6]—to be in honor of Sequoyah (1767–1843), who was the inventor of the Cherokee syllabary.[7] An etymological study published in 2012, however, concluded that the name was more likely to have originated from the Latin sequi (meaning to follow) since the number of seeds per cone in the newly classified genus fell in mathematical sequence with the other four genera in the suborder.[8]
John Muir wrote of the species in about 1870:
"Do behold the King in his glory, King Sequoia! Behold! Behold! seems all I can say. Some time ago I left all for Sequoia and have been and am at his feet, fasting and praying for light, for is he not the greatest light in the woods, in the world? Where are such columns of sunshine, tangible, accessible, terrestrialized?'[34]
Uses
Wood from mature giant sequoias is highly resistant to decay, but due to being fibrous and brittle, it is generally unsuitable for construction. From the 1880s through the 1920s, logging took place in many groves in spite of marginal commercial returns. The Hume-Bennett Lumber Company was the last to harvest giant sequoia, going out of business in 1924.[36] Due to their weight and brittleness, trees would often shatter when they hit the ground, wasting much of the wood. Loggers attempted to cushion the impact by digging trenches and filling them with branches. Still, as little as 50% of the timber is estimated to have made it from groves to the mill. The wood was used mainly for shingles and fence posts, or even for matchsticks.
Pictures of the once majestic trees broken and abandoned in formerly pristine groves, and the thought of the giants put to such modest use, spurred the public outcry that caused most of the groves to be preserved as protected land. The public can visit an example of 1880s clear-cutting at Big Stump Grove near General Grant Grove. As late as the 1980s, some immature trees were logged in Sequoia National Forest, publicity of which helped lead to the creation of Giant Sequoia National Monument.[citation needed]
The wood from immature trees is less brittle, with recent tests on young plantation-grown trees showing it similar to coast redwood wood in quality. This is resulting in some interest in cultivating giant sequoia as a very high-yielding timber crop tree, both in California and also in parts of western Europe, where it may grow more efficiently than coast redwoods. In the northwest United States, some entrepreneurs have also begun growing giant sequoias for Christmas trees. Besides these attempts at tree farming, the principal economic uses for giant sequoia today are tourism and horticulture.
Threats
Formerly exploited by logging, sequoias are now threatened by both a combination of fire and
Around the world
Giant sequoia is a very popular
Trees can withstand temperatures of −31 °C (−25 °F) or colder for short periods of time, provided the ground around the roots is insulated with either heavy snow or mulch. Outside its natural range, the foliage can suffer from damaging windburn.
A wide range of horticultural varieties have been selected, especially in Europe, including blue, compact blue, powder blue, hazel smith, pendulum—or weeping—varieties, and grafted cultivars.[41]
France
The tallest giant sequoia ever measured outside of the United States[42] is a specimen planted near Ribeauvillé in France in 1856 and measured in 2014 at a height between 57.7 m (189 ft)[43] and 58.1 m (191 ft)[44] at age 158 years.
United Kingdom
The giant sequoia was first brought into cultivation in Britain in 1853 by the horticulturist
seed from this batch was widely distributed throughout Europe.Growth in Britain is very fast, with the tallest tree, at Benmore in southwest Scotland, reaching 56.4 m (185 ft) in 2014 at age 150 years,[47] and several others from 50–53 m (164–174 ft) tall; the stoutest is around 12 m (39 ft) in girth and 4 m (13 ft) in diameter, in Perthshire. The Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, and in their second campus at Wakehurst, contain multiple large specimens of the species. Biddulph Grange Garden in Staffordshire holds a fine collection of both Sequoiadendron giganteum and Sequoia sempervirens (coast redwood). The General Sherman of California has a volume of 1,489 m3 (52,600 cu ft); by way of comparison, the largest giant sequoias in Great Britain have volumes no greater than 90–100 m3 (3,200–3,500 cu ft), one example being the 90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) specimen in the New Forest.
Sequoiadendron giganteum has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[48][49]
An avenue of 218 giant sequoias was planted in 1865 near the town of Camberley, Surrey, England. The trees have since been surrounded by modern real estate development.[50]
In 2024, there were an estimated 5,000 mature sequoias in the UK,[51] and up to 500,000 Sequoiadendron giganteum and Sequoia sempervirens that are not mature. Growing conditions are generally more conducive than in their native range in the US[52] though they do not propagate naturally. The number of sequoiadendrons in the U.K. may now exceed the number in wild groves in California.[53] Public acceptance of, and enthusiasm for, planting non-native trees in the U.K. is in part attributable to severe losses of native tree species in Europe during the Pleistocene advances of glacial ice — including both genera of redwoods that survived only in the western United States.[54]
Italy
Numerous giant sequoia were planted in Italy from 1860 through 1905. Several regions contain specimens that range from 40 to 48 metres (131 to 157 ft) in height. The largest tree is in Roccavione, in the Piedmont, with a basal circumference of 16 metres (52 ft). One notable tree survived a 200-metre (660 ft) tall flood wave in 1963 that was caused by a landslide at Vajont Dam. There are numerous giant sequoia in parks and reserves.[55]
Growth rates in some areas of Europe are remarkable. One young tree in Italy reached 22 m (72 ft) tall and 88 cm (2.89 ft) trunk diameter in 17 years.[56]
Northern and Central Europe
Growth further northeast in Europe is limited by winter cold. In Denmark, where extreme winters can reach −32 °C (−26 °F), the largest tree was 35 m (115 ft) tall and 1.7 m (5.6 ft) diameter in 1976 and is bigger today. One in Poland has purportedly survived temperatures down to −37 °C (−35 °F) with heavy snow cover.
Two members of the German Dendrology Society, E. J. Martin and Illa Martin, introduced the giant sequoia into German forestry at the
Twenty-nine giant sequoias, measuring around 30 m (98 ft) in height, grow in Belgrade's municipality of Lazarevac in Serbia.[58]
The oldest Sequoiadendron in the Czech Republic, at 44 m (144 ft), grows in Ratměřice u Votic castle garden.
United States and Canada
Giant sequoias are grown successfully in the Pacific Northwest and southern US, and less successfully in eastern North America. Giant sequoia cultivation is very successful in the Pacific Northwest from western Oregon north to southwest British Columbia, with fast growth rates. In Washington and Oregon, it is common to find giant sequoias that have been successfully planted in both urban and rural areas. There are hundreds of Sequoia's planted on the Olympic Peninsula over the last 100 years and farms that have 50 or more planted 40 years ago or longer.
In Seattle, a 100 ft (30 m) sequoia stands as a prominent landmark at the entrance to Seattle's downtown retail core.[59][60] Other large specimens exceeding 90 ft (27 m) are located on the University of Washington[61] and Seattle University[62] campuses, in the Evergreen Washelli Memorial Park cemetery,[63] and in the Leschi, Madrona, and Magnolia neighborhoods.[64]
In the northeastern US there has been some limited success in growing the species, but growth is much slower there, and it is prone to
A cold-tolerant cultivar 'Hazel Smith' selected in about 1960 is proving more successful in the northeastern US. This clone was the sole survivor of several hundred seedlings grown at a nursery in New Jersey. The U.S. National Arboretum has a specimen grown from a cutting in 1970 that can be seen in the Gotelli Conifer Collection.
Since its last assessment as an endangered species in 2011, it was estimated that another 13–19% of the population (or 9,761–13,637 mature trees) were destroyed during the
Australia
The Ballarat Botanical Gardens contain a significant collection, many of them about 150 years old. Jubilee Park and the Hepburn Mineral Springs Reserve in Daylesford, Cook Park in Orange, New South Wales and Carisbrook's Deep Creek park in Victoria both have specimens. Jamieson Township in the Victorian high country has two specimens which were planted in the early 1860s.[citation needed]
In Tasmania, specimens can be seen in private and public gardens, as sequoias were popular in the mid-Victorian era. The Westbury Village Green has mature specimens with more in Deloraine.[
The Pialligo Redwood Forest consists of 3,000 surviving redwood specimens, of 122,000 planted, 500 meters east of the Canberra Airport. The forest was laid out by the city's designer Walter Burley Griffin, though the city's arborist, Thomas Charles Weston, advised against it.[71][72] The National Arboretum Canberra began a grove of Sequoiadendron giganteum in 2008.[73] They also grow in the abandoned arboretum at Mount Banda Banda in New South Wales.[citation needed]
New Zealand
Several impressive specimens of Sequoiadendron giganteum can be found in the
Record trees
Largest by trunk volume
As of 2009, the top ten largest giant sequoias sorted by volume of their trunks are:[9][note 1]
Rank | Tree Name | Grove | Height | Girth at ground | Volume | Estimated age | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(ft) | (m) | (ft) | (m) | (ft3) | (m3) | (years) | |||
1 | General Sherman | Giant Forest | 275 | 84 | 103 | 31 | 52,508 | 1,486.9 | 2,300−2,700 |
2[note 2] | General Grant
|
General Grant Grove | 268 | 82 | 108 | 33 | 46,608 | 1,319.8 [note 2] | 1,650 |
3[note 2] | President | Giant Forest | 241 | 73 | 93 | 28 | 45,148 | 1,278.4 [note 2] | 3,200 |
4 | Lincoln | Giant Forest | 256 | 78 | 98 | 30 | 44,471 | 1,259.3 | |
5 | Stagg | Alder Creek Grove | 243 | 74 | 109 | 33 | 42,557 | 1,205.1 | 3,000 |
6 | Boole | Converse Basin
|
269 | 82 | 113 | 34 | 42,472 | 1,202.7 | 2,000 (minimum) |
7 | Genesis | Mountain Home Grove | 253 | 77 | 85 | 26 | 41,897 | 1,186.4 | |
8 | Franklin | Giant Forest | 224 | 68 | 95 | 29 | 41,280 | 1,168.9 | |
9 | King Arthur | Garfield Grove | 270 | 82 | 104 | 32 | 40,656 | 1,151.2 | |
10 | Monroe
|
Giant Forest | 248 | 76 | 91 | 28 | 40,104 | 1,135.6 |
- The General Sherman tree is estimated to weigh about 2100 tonnes.[77]
- The Washington Treewas previously arguably the second largest tree with a volume of 47,850 cubic feet (1,355 m3) (although the upper half of its trunk was hollow, making the calculated volume debatable), but after losing the hollow upper half of its trunk in January 2005 following a fire, it is no longer of great size.
- The largest giant sequoia ever recorded was the Father of the Forest from Calaveras Grove, an exceedingly massive tree which fell many centuries ago in the North Grove. Reportedly, the tree was once over 435 ft tall, and 110 ft in circumference, with a minimum height of 365 feet.[78][79] Now, what is left of the tree is a popular tourist attraction.
Tallest
- Redwood – Redwood Mountain Grove – 95 metres (311 ft)[9]
- tallest outside the United States:[42] specimen near Ribeauvillé, France, measured in 2014 at a height between 58 m (190 ft)[43] and 58 m (190 ft)[44] at age 158 years.
Oldest
- Muir Snag – Converse Basin Grove – more than 3500 years[9]
Greatest girth
- Waterfall Tree – Alder Creek Grove – 47 metres (155 ft) – tree with enormous basal buttress on very steep ground.[9]
Greatest base diameter
- Waterfall Tree – Alder Creek Grove – 21 metres (69 ft) – tree with enormous basal buttress on very steep ground.[9]
- Tunnel Tree – Atwell Mill Grove – 17 metres (57 ft) – tree with a huge flared base that has burned all the way through.[9]
Greatest mean diameter at breast height
- General Grant – General Grant Grove – 8.8 metres (29 ft)[9]
Largest limb
- Arm Tree – Atwell Mill, East Fork Grove – 4.0 metres (13 ft) in diameter[9]
Thickest bark
- 0.9 metres (3 ft) or more[9]
See also
- Mother of the Forest
- Discovery Tree
- The House (trees)
- Largest organisms
- Kings Canyon National Park
- Yosemite National Park
- Calaveras Big Trees State Park
- Old growth forest
- List of superlative trees
Notes
- ^ The volume figures have a low degree of accuracy (at best about ±14 cubic metres or 490 cubic feet), due to difficulties in measurement; stem diameter measurements are taken at a few set heights up the trunk, and assume that the trunk is circular in cross-section, and that taper between measurement points is even. The volume measurements also do not take cavities into account. The measurements are trunk-only, and do not include the volume of wood in the branches or roots.
- ^ a b c d
This table presents giant sequoias sorted by the volume of their Stephen Sillett announced a measurement of the President tree with a total of 54,000 cubic feet (1,500 m3) of wood and 9,000 cubic feet (250 m3) of wood in the branches.[75][76] Ranked according to the total amount of wood in the tree, the General Sherman tree is first, the President tree is second, and the General Grant tree is third.[75][76] General Sherman has 2,000 cubic feet (57 m3) more wood than the President tree.[75]
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Whitney states, 'The genus was named in honor of Sequoia* or Sequoyah, a Cherokee Indian.'
- ^ ISBN 978-0-520-92549-6.
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...the foregoing has shown that the name of the genus Sequoia as a tribute to the Cherokee linguist Sequoyah is an unsubstantiated opinion...Endlicher named the genus for the operation that he had conducted. The new genus fell in sequence with the other four genera in his suborder.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Flint 2002
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- .
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Research reveals genes for climate adaptation and insights into genetic basis for survival
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Further reading
- OCLC 3477527.
- Earle, Christopher J., ed. (2018). "Sequoiadendron giganteum". The Gymnosperm Database.
- Habeck, R. J. (1992). "Sequoiadendron giganteum". Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service (USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
- Hartesveldt, Richard J.; Harvey, H. Thomas; Shellhammer, Howard S.; Stecker, Ronald E. (1975). The Giant Sequoia of the Sierra Nevada. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service.
External links
- ARKive: Sequoiadendron giganteum, arkive.org
- Arboretum de Villardebelle – photos of cones & shoots with phenology notes, pinetum.org
- Giant Sequoia Fire History in Mariposa Grove, Yosemite National Park, nps.gov
- Save-the-Redwoods League, savethewoods.org
- "Sequoias of Yosemite National Park" 1949 by James W. McFarland
- Redwoodworld.co.uk giant redwoods in the U.K.
- Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity in California (1862) – The Mammoth Trees Of Calaveras, yosemite.ca.us
- Short radio episode Woody Gospel Letter in which John Muir extols "King Sequoia" from The Life and Letters of John Muir, 1924. California Legacy Project.
- Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. .
- Conifers Around the World: Sequoiadendron giganteum – Giant Sequoia.
- Giants of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Park, On YouTube by Sequoia Parks Conservancy
- Video and commentary on the cones and bark characteristics on YouTube