Solar power
Solar power, also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy from
Photovoltaics (PV) were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-sized applications, from the
In 2023, solar power systems generated 5% of the world's electricity,
Almost half the solar power installed in 2022 was
Potential
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Sustainable energy |
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Geography affects solar energy potential because different locations receive different amounts of solar radiation. In particular, with some variations, areas that are closer to the
Technologies
Solar power plants use one of two technologies:
- solar farms, converting sunlight directly into electric power.
- Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight to extreme heat to make steam, which is converted into electricity by a turbine.
Photovoltaic cells
A
As of 2022[update] over 90% of the market is
Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid when available, especially in developed countries with large markets.
In "vertical agrivoltaics" system, solar cells are oriented vertically on farmland, to allow the land to both grow crops and generate renewable energy.[22] Other configurations include floating solar farms, placing solar canopies over parking lots, and installing solar panels on roofs.[22]
Thin-film solar
A
Perovskite solar cells
A
Concentrated solar power
Concentrated solar power (CSP), also called "concentrated solar thermal", uses lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to concentrate sunlight, then uses the resulting heat to generate electricity from conventional steam-driven turbines.[31]
A wide range of concentrating technologies exists: among the best known are the
As of 2021[update] the levelized cost of electricity from CSP is over twice that of PV.[36] However, their very high temperatures may prove useful to help decarbonize industries (perhaps via hydrogen) which need to be hotter than electricity can provide.[37]
Hybrid systems
A hybrid system combines solar with energy storage and/or one or more other forms of generation. Hydro,[38][39] wind[40][41] and batteries[42] are commonly combined with solar. The combined generation may enable the system to vary power output with demand, or at least smooth the solar power fluctuation.[43][44] There is much hydro worldwide, and adding solar panels on or around existing hydro reservoirs is particularly useful, because hydro is usually more flexible than wind and cheaper at scale than batteries,[45] and existing power lines can sometimes be used.[46][47]
Development and deployment
Early days
The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce, such as experiments by Augustin Mouchot.[51] Charles Fritts installed the world's first rooftop photovoltaic solar array, using 1%-efficient selenium cells, on a New York City roof in 1884.[52] However, development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum.[53] Bell Telephone Laboratories’ 1950s research used silicon wafers with a thin coating of boron. The “Bell Solar Battery” was described as 6% efficient, with a square yard of the panels generating 50 watts.[54] The first satellite with solar panels was launched in 1957.[55]
By the 1970s, solar panels were still too expensive for much other than
Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the United States (SERI, now
Mid-1990s to 2010
In the mid-1990s development of both, residential and commercial
2010s
For several years, worldwide growth of solar PV was driven by European deployment, but it then shifted to Asia, especially China and Japan, and to a growing number of countries and regions all over the world. The largest manufacturers of solar equipment were based in China.[62][63] Although concentrated solar power capacity grew more than tenfold, it remained a tiny proportion of the total,[64]: 51 because the cost of utility-scale solar PV fell by 85% between 2010 and 2020, while CSP costs only fell 68% in the same timeframe.[65]
2020s
Despite the rising cost of materials, such as
Current status
About half of installed capacity is utility scale.[70]
Forecasts
Most new renewable capacity between 2022 and 2027 is forecast to be solar, surpassing coal as the largest source of installed power capacity.[71]: 26 Utility scale is forecast to become the largest source of electricity in all regions except sub-Saharan Africa by 2050.[70]
According to a 2021 study, global electricity generation potential of rooftop solar panels is estimated at 27 PWh per year at costs ranging from $40 (Asia) to $240 per MWh (US, Europe). Its practical realization will however depend on the availability and cost of scalable electricity storage solutions.[72]
Photovoltaic power stations
A
This approach differs from
In some countries, the
Concentrating solar power stations
Commercial concentrating solar power (CSP) plants, also called "solar thermal power stations", were first developed in the 1980s. The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in California's Mojave Desert, is the world's largest solar thermal power plant project. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW), the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), and Extresol Solar Power Station (150 MW), all in Spain. The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity demand typically occurs at about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage.[76]
Economics
Cost per watt
The typical cost factors for solar power include the costs of the modules, the frame to hold them, wiring, inverters, labour cost, any land that might be required, the grid connection, maintenance and the solar insolation that location will receive.
Photovoltaic systems use no fuel, and modules typically last 25 to 40 years.[77] Thus upfront capital and financing costs make up 80% to 90% of the cost of solar power.[71]: 165
Some countries are considering price caps,[78] whereas others prefer contracts for difference.[79]
In many countries, solar power is the lowest cost source of electricity.[80] In Saudi Arabia, a power purchase agreement (PPA) was signed in April 2021 for a new solar power plant in Al-Faisaliah. The project has recorded the world's lowest cost for solar PV electricity production of USD 1.04 cents/ kWh.[81]
Installation prices
Expenses of high-power band solar modules has greatly decreased over time. Beginning in 1982, the cost per kW was approximately 27,000 American dollars, and in 2006 the cost dropped to approximately 4,000 American dollars per kW. The PV system in 1992 cost approximately 16,000 American dollars per kW and it dropped to approximately 6,000 American dollars per kW in 2008.[82]
In 2021 in the US, residential solar cost from 2 to 4 dollars/watt (but solar shingles cost much more)[83] and utility solar costs were around $1/watt.[84]
Productivity by location
The productivity of solar power in a region depends on solar irradiance, which varies through the day and year and is influenced by latitude and climate. PV system output power also depends on ambient temperature, wind speed, solar spectrum, the local soiling conditions, and other factors.
Onshore wind power tends to be the cheapest source of electricity in Northern Eurasia, Canada, some parts of the United States, and Patagonia in Argentina whereas in other parts of the world mostly solar power (or less often a combination of wind, solar and other low carbon energy) is thought to be best.[85]: 8 Modelling by Exeter University suggests that by 2030, solar will be least expensive in all countries except for some in north-eastern Europe.[86]
The locations with highest annual solar irradiance lie in the arid tropics and subtropics. Deserts lying in low latitudes usually have few clouds and can receive sunshine for more than ten hours a day.
Thus solar is (or is predicted to become) the cheapest source of energy in all of Central America, Africa, the Middle East, India, South-east Asia, Australia, and several other regions.[85]: 8
Different measurements of solar irradiance (direct normal irradiance, global horizontal irradiance) are mapped below:
-
North America
-
South America
-
Europe
-
Africa and Middle East
-
South and South-East Asia
-
Australia
-
World
Self-consumption
In cases of self-consumption of solar energy, the payback time is calculated based on how much electricity is not purchased from the grid.[90] However, in many cases, the patterns of generation and consumption do not coincide, and some or all of the energy is fed back into the grid. The electricity is sold, and at other times when energy is taken from the grid, electricity is bought. The relative costs and prices obtained affect the economics. In many markets, the price paid for sold PV electricity is significantly lower than the price of bought electricity, which incentivizes self-consumption.[91] Moreover, separate self-consumption incentives have been used in e.g., Germany and Italy.[91] Grid interaction regulation has also included limitations of grid feed-in in some regions in Germany with high amounts of installed PV capacity.[91][92] By increasing self-consumption, the grid feed-in can be limited without curtailment, which wastes electricity.[93]
A good match between generation and consumption is key for high self-consumption. The match can be improved with batteries or controllable electricity consumption.[93] However, batteries are expensive, and profitability may require the provision of other services from them besides self-consumption increase,[94] for example avoiding power outages.[95] Hot water storage tanks with electric heating with heat pumps or resistance heaters can provide low-cost storage for self-consumption of solar power.[93] Shiftable loads, such as dishwashers, tumble dryers and washing machines, can provide controllable consumption with only a limited effect on the users, but their effect on self-consumption of solar power may be limited.[93]
Energy pricing, incentives and taxes
The original political purpose of incentive policies for PV was to facilitate an initial small-scale deployment to begin to grow the industry, even where the cost of PV was significantly above grid parity, to allow the industry to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. Since reaching grid parity, some policies are implemented to promote national energy independence,[96] high tech job creation[97] and reduction of CO2 emissions.[96]
Financial incentives for photovoltaics differ across countries, including Australia,[98] China,[99] Germany,[100] India,[101] Japan, and the United States and even across states within the US.
Net metering
In net metering the price of the electricity produced is the same as the price supplied to the consumer, and the consumer is billed on the difference between production and consumption. Net metering can usually be done with no changes to standard electricity meters, which accurately measure power in both directions and automatically report the difference, and because it allows homeowners and businesses to generate electricity at a different time from consumption, effectively using the grid as a giant storage battery. With net metering, deficits are billed each month while surpluses are rolled over to the following month. Best practices call for perpetual roll over of kWh credits.[102] Excess credits upon termination of service are either lost or paid for at a rate ranging from wholesale to retail rate or above, as can be excess annual credits.[103]
Community solar
A community solar project is a solar power installation that accepts capital from and provides output credit and tax benefits to multiple customers, including individuals, businesses, nonprofits, and other investors. Participants typically invest in or subscribe to a certain kW capacity or kWh generation of remote electrical production.[105]
Taxes
In some countries tariffs (import taxes) are imposed on imported solar panels.[106][107]
Grid integration
Variability
The overwhelming majority of electricity produced worldwide is used immediately because traditional generators can adapt to demand and storage is usually more expensive. Both solar power and wind power are sources of variable renewable power, meaning that all available output must be used locally, carried on transmission lines to be used elsewhere, or stored (e.g., in a battery). Since solar energy is not available at night, storing it so as to have continuous electricity availability is potentially an important issue, particularly in off-grid applications and for future 100% renewable energy scenarios.[111]
Solar is intermittent due to the day/night cycles and variable weather conditions. However solar power can be forecast somewhat by time of day, location, and seasons. The challenge of integrating solar power in any given electric utility varies significantly. In places with hot summers and mild winters, solar tends to be well matched to daytime cooling demands.[112]
Energy storage
In
Common battery technologies used in today's home PV systems include
Retired electric vehicle (EV) batteries can be repurposed.
Other technologies
Solar power plants, while they can be curtailed, usually simply output as much power as possible. Therefore in an electricity system without sufficient
Conventional hydroelectric dams work very well in conjunction with solar power; water can be held back or released from a reservoir as required. Where suitable geography is not available, pumped-storage hydroelectricity can use solar power to pump water to a high reservoir on sunny days, then the energy is recovered at night and in bad weather by releasing water via a hydroelectric plant to a low reservoir where the cycle can begin again.[122]
While hydroelectric and natural gas plants can quickly respond to changes in load; coal, biomass and nuclear plants usually take considerable time to respond to load and can only be scheduled to follow the predictable variation. Depending on local circumstances, beyond about 20–40% of total generation, grid-connected
The combination of wind and solar PV has the advantage that the two sources complement each other because the peak operating times for each system occur at different times of the day and year.
Environmental effects
Solar power is cleaner than electricity from fossil fuels,[20] so can be better for the environment.[128] Solar power does not lead to harmful emissions during operation, but the production of the panels creates some pollution. A 2021 study estimated the carbon footprint of manufacturing monocrystalline panels at 515 g CO2/kWp in the US and 740 g CO2/kWp in China,[129] but this is expected to fall as manufacturers use more clean electricity and recycled materials.[130] Solar power carries an upfront cost to the environment via production with a carbon payback time of several years as of 2022[update],[130] but offers clean energy for the remainder of their 30-year lifetime.[131]
The
Lifecycle
Harmful materials are used in the production of solar panels, but generally in small amounts.[147] As of 2022[update], the environmental impact of perovskite is difficult to estimate, but there is some concern that lead may be a problem.[20]
A 2021 International Energy Agency study projects the demand for copper will double by 2040. The study cautions that supply needs to increase rapidly to match demand from large-scale deployment of solar and required grid upgrades.[148][149] More tellurium and indium may also be needed.[20]
Recycling may help.
A very small proportion of solar power is concentrated solar power. Concentrated solar power may use much more water than gas-fired power. This can be a problem, as this type of solar power needs strong sunlight so is often built in deserts.[157]
Politics
Solar production cannot be cut off by geopolitics once installed, unlike oil and gas, which contributes to energy security.[159]
As of 2022[update] over 40% of global polysilicon manufacturing capacity is in Xinjiang in China,[160] which raises concerns about human rights violations (Xinjiang internment camps) as well as supply chain dependency.[161]
See also
- 100% renewable energy
- Cost of electricity by source
- Gravity battery
- Index of solar energy articles
- List of cities by sunshine duration
- List of photovoltaic power stations
- List of solar thermal power stations
- List of solar-powered products
- Renewable energy commercialization
- Solar energy
- Solar lamp
- Solar vehicle
- Sustainable energy
- Thin-film solar cell
- Timeline of solar cells
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Bibliography
- Perlin, John (1999). From space to Earth: the story of solar electricity. Earthscan. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-937948-14-9.
Further reading
- Sivaram, Varun (2018). Taming the Sun: Innovation to Harness Solar Energy and Power the Planet. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03768-6.
External links
- Solar energy and the environment at U.S. Energy Information Administration