Special forces

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CV-22 Osprey
aircraft on February 26, 2018

Special forces or special operations forces (SOF) are military units trained to conduct special operations.[1][2][3] NATO has defined special operations as "military activities conducted by specially designated, organized, selected, trained and equipped forces using unconventional techniques and modes of employment".[1][4]

Special forces emerged in the early 20th century, with a significant growth in the field during

In Russian-speaking countries, special forces of any country are typically called spetsnaz, an acronym for "special purpose". In the United States, the term special forces often refers specifically to the U.S. Army Special Forces, while the term special operations forces is used more broadly for these types of units.

Capabilities

Special forces capabilities include the following:

  • Special reconnaissance and surveillance in hostile environments
  • Foreign internal defense: Training and development of other states' military and security forces
  • Offensive action
  • Support to
    counter-insurgency
    through population engagement and support
  • Counter-terrorism
    operations
  • Sabotage and demolition
  • Hostage rescue

Other capabilities can include

support of air force operations
.

History

Early period

Hokusai manga) by Hokusai
.

Special forces have played an important role throughout the history of warfare, whenever the aim was to achieve disruption by "hit and run" and sabotage, rather than more traditional conventional combat. Other significant roles lay in reconnaissance, providing essential intelligence from near or among the enemy and increasingly in combating irregular forces, their infrastructure and activities.

Chinese strategist

Napoleonic wars, rifle regiments and sapper
units were formed that held specialised roles in reconnaissance and skirmishing and were not committed to the formal battle lines.

First specialized units

The

British Army scouts in South Africa (1893): Frederick Russell Burnham (middle); Hon. Maurice Gifford (right)

During the

field craft, and military tactics filled this role. This unit was formed in 1900 by Lord Lovat and early on reported to an American, Major Frederick Russell Burnham, the Chief of Scouts under Lord Roberts. After the war, Lovat's Scouts went on to formally become the British Army's first sniper unit.[16] Additionally, the Bushveldt Carbineers, formed in 1901, can be seen as an early unconventional warfare
unit.

The

General Antonio Luna to serve under the Philippine Revolutionary Army. They became famous for fighting fiercer than the regular Filipino army soldiers. Most of the members of this unit came from the old Spanish Army filipino members which fought during the Philippine Revolution.[17]

General Antonio Luna of the Philippine Revolutionary Army, the founder of Tiradores dela Muerte

The sharpshooters became famous for their fierce fighting and proved their worth by being the usual spearheading unit in every major battle in the Philippine–American War. In the Battle of Paye on December 19, 1899, Bonifacio Mariano, a sharpshooter under the command of General Licerio Gerónimo, killed General Henry Ware Lawton of the United States Army, making the latter the highest ranking casualty during the course of the war.[18]

World War I

Members of the Italian Arditi corps, 1918, wielding daggers.

The German Stormtroopers and the Italian Arditi were the first modern shock troops. They were both elite assault units trained to a much higher level than that of average troops and tasked to carry out daring attacks and bold raids against enemy defenses. Unlike Stormtroopers, Arditi were not units within infantry divisions, but were considered a separate combat arm.[19]

Interwar period

Chaco war

The Macheteros de Jara was an auxiliary cavalry regiment that was organized since August 15, 1932, before the Battle of Boquerón began. The regiment was recruited from former outlaws from Paraguay who fought against Bolivian officers and soldiers.

The 50th Infantry Regiment (Cuchilleros de la Muerte) was a Bolivian infantry regiment that fought in the Chaco War. Nicknamed the Knives of Death (Spanish: Cuchillos de la Muerte), the regiment relied almost exclusively on the use of blade weapons, particularly bayonets.

World War II

British

British Commandos
were the prototype for the modern special forces. Volunteers had to undergo an arduous training course.
Commandos

Modern special forces emerged during the

Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Dill, aware of Churchill's intentions, approved Clarke's proposal[21] and on 23 June 1940, the first Commando raid took place.[21]

By the autumn of 1940 more than 2,000 men had volunteered and in November 1940 these new units were organised into a Special Service Brigade consisting of four battalions under the command of Brigadier J. C. Haydon.[22] The Special Service Brigade was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos.[21] Each Commando had a lieutenant colonel as the commanding officer and numbered around 450 men (divided into 75 man troops that were further divided into 15 man sections).

In December 1940 a Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre.[23] In February 1942 the Commando training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan, the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units and individual replacements.[23] The training regime was for the time innovative and physically demanding, and far in advance of normal British Army training.[23] The depot staff were all hand picked, with the ability to outperform any of the volunteers.

British Commandos wearing the green beret and carrying the Bergen rucksack during the Normandy landings

Training and assessment started immediately on arrival, with the volunteers having to complete an 8-mile (13 km) march with all their equipment from the

zip-line over Loch Arkaig, all while carrying arms and full equipment. Training continued by day and night with river crossings, mountain climbing, weapons training, unarmed combat
, map reading, and small boat operations on the syllabus.

Reaching a wartime strength of over 30 individual units and four assault

Paracommando Brigade. The United States Army Rangers and United States Marine Raiders were all influenced to some degree by the British Commandos.[24][25][26]

Special Air Service (SAS)

The first modern special forces unit was the

, his plan was endorsed by the Army High Command.

British SAS in North Africa (1943), in jeeps with mounted heavy machine guns

The force initially consisted of five officers and 60

Kasteli, Tympaki and Maleme significant damage was caused, and raids at Fuka and Mersa Matruh airfields destroyed 30 aircraft.[30]

Chindits

In the

Burma fighting the Japanese.[citation needed
]

The Company of Chosen Immortals

Immediately after the

Greek government fled to Egypt and started to form military units in exile. Air Force Lt. Colonel G. Alexandris suggested the creation of an Army unit along the lines of the British SAS. In August 1942 the Company of Chosen Immortals (Greek: Λόχος Επιλέκτων Αθανάτων) was formed under Cavalry Major Antonios Stefanakis in Palestine, with 200 men. In 1942, the unit was renamed Sacred Band. In close cooperation with the commander of the British SAS Regiment, Lt. Colonel David Stirling, the company moved to the SAS base at Qabrit in Egypt to begin its training in its new role. Operating under British direction, the special forces unit fought alongside the SAS in the Western Desert and the Aegean.[citation needed
]

Poland

During the start of

Cichociemni (“silent and unseen”) paratroopers to be deployed into Poland.[31] The Cichociemni were trained similar to the British Special Forces, with the curricula differing according to each soldier's specialization.[31] Their task, on deployment to Poland, was to sustain the structures of the Polish state, training the members of the Resistance in fighting the German occupant.[31] This included taking part in the Warsaw Uprising
.

Australian

Following advice from the British, Australia began raising special forces.

Wilson's Promontory in Victoria in early 1941 under the tutelage of British instructors. With an establishment of 17 officers and 256 men, the independent companies were trained as "stay behind" forces, a role that they were later employed in against the Japanese in the South West Pacific Area during 1942–43, most notably fighting a guerrilla campaign in Timor, as well as actions in New Guinea.[33]
In all, a total of eight independent companies were raised before they were re-organised in mid-1943 into commando squadrons and placed under the command of the divisional cavalry regiments that were re-designated as cavalry commando regiments. As a part of this structure, a total of 11 commando squadrons were raised.

They continued to act independently and were often assigned at brigade level during the later stages of the war, taking part in the fighting in New Guinea,

Borneo, where they were employed largely in long-range reconnaissance and flank protection roles.[34] In addition to these units, the Australians also raised the Z Special Unit and M Special Unit. M Special Unit was largely employed in an intelligence-gathering role, while Z Special Force undertook direct action missions. One of its most notable actions came as part of Operation Jaywick, in which several Japanese ships were sunk in Singapore Harbour in 1943. A second raid on Singapore in 1944, known as Operation Rimau, was unsuccessful.[35]

United States

Office of Strategic Services

The United States formed the

Special Activities Division is the direct descendant of the OSS.[36]

Marine Raiders

On February 16, 1942, the

Chester Nimitz's request for "raiders" in the Pacific front of the war.[citation needed
]

United States Army Rangers

In mid-1942, Major-General Lucian Truscott of the U.S. Army, a liaison officer with the British General Staff submitted a proposal to General George Marshall that an American unit be set up "along the lines of the British Commandos",[citation needed] resulting in the formation of the United States Army Rangers.[citation needed]

1st Special Service Force

The United States and

1st Special Service Force as a sabotage ski brigade for operations in Norway. Later known as the "Devil's Brigade" (and called "The Black Devils" by mystified German soldiers), the First Special Service Force was dispatched to the occupied Aleutian Islands, Italy and Southern France.[citation needed
]

Merrill's Marauders

Merrill's Marauders were modeled on the Chindits and took part in similar operations in Burma. In late November 1943, the Alamo Scouts (Sixth Army Special Reconnaissance Unit) were formed to conduct reconnaissance and raider work in the Southwest Pacific Theater under the personal command of then Lt. General Walter Krueger, Commanding General, Sixth U.S. Army. Krueger envisioned that the Alamo Scouts, consisting of small teams of highly trained volunteers, would operate deep behind enemy lines to provide intelligence-gathering and tactical reconnaissance in advance of Sixth U.S. Army landing operations.[citation needed]

Special Forces Tab

In 1983, nearly 40 years after the end of World War II, the US Army created the Special Forces Tab. It was later decided that personnel with at least 120 days' wartime service prior to 1955 in certain units, including the Devil's Brigade, the Alamo Scouts and the OSS Operational Groups, would receive the Tab for their services in World War II, placing them all in the lineage of today's U.S. and Canadian (via Devil's Brigade) Special Forces.[citation needed]

Axis powers

The Axis powers did not adopt the use of special forces on the same scale as the British.

German

The German army's

Fall Gelb and Barbarossa campaigns of 1940 and 1941.[citation needed
]

(middle), 1944

Later during the war the

Dwight Eisenhower. Although this was untrue, Eisenhower was confined to his headquarters for several days and Skorzeny was labelled "the most dangerous man in Europe".[This quote needs a citation
]

Italian

In

]

Japanese

The

]

However, as with similar airborne units created by the

Philippines campaign. Although structured as a division, its capabilities were much lower, as its six regiments had manpower equivalent to a standard infantry battalion, and it lacked any form of artillery, and had to rely on other units for logistical support. Its men were no longer parachute-trained, but relied on aircraft for transport.[citation needed
]

Some 750 men from the 2nd Raiding Brigade, of this group were assigned to attack American air bases on Luzon and Leyte on the night of 6 December 1944. They were flown in Ki-57 transports, but most of the aircraft were shot down. Some 300 commandos managed to land in the Burauen area on Leyte. The force destroyed some planes and inflicted numerous casualties, before they were annihilated.[citation needed]

Finnish

During World War II, the Finnish Army and Border Guard organized sissi forces into a long-range reconnaissance patrol (kaukopartio) units. These were open only to volunteers and operated far behind enemy lines in small teams. They conducted both intelligence-gathering missions and raids on e.g. enemy supply depots or other strategic targets. They were generally highly effective. For example, during the Battle of Ilomantsi, Soviet supply lines were harassed to the point that the Soviet artillery was unable to exploit its massive numerical advantage over Finnish artillery. Their operations were also classified as secret because of the political sensitivity of such operations. Only authorized military historians could publish on their operations; individual soldiers were required to take the secrets to the grave. A famous LRRP commander was Lauri Törni, who later joined the U.S. Army to train U.S. personnel in special operations.[citation needed]

Bangladesh Liberation War (1971)

In June 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War, the World Bank sent a mission to observe the situation in East Pakistan. The media cell of Pakistan's government was circulating the news that the situation in East Pakistan was stable and normal. Khaled Mosharraf, a sector commander of Mukti Bahini, planned to deploy a special commando team. The task assigned to the team was to carry out commando operations and to terrorize Dhaka. The major objective of this team was to prove that the situation was not actually normal. Moreover, Pakistan, at that time, was expecting economic aid from World Bank, which was assumed[by whom?] to be spent to buy arms. The plan was to make World Bank Mission understand the true situation of East Pakistan and to stop sanctioning the aid.[37] Khaled, along with A. T. M. Haider, another sector commander, formed the Crack Platoon. Initially, the number of commandos in the platoon was 17, trained in Melaghar Camp.[38] From Melaghar, commandos of Crack Platoon headed for Dhaka on 4 June 1971 and launched a guerrilla operation on 5 June.[37] Later, the number of commandos increased, the platoon split and deployed in different areas surrounding Dhaka city.[39] The basic objectives of the Crack Platoon were to demonstrate the strength of Mukti Bahini, terrorising Pakistan Army and their collaborators. Another major objective was proving to the international community that the situation in East Pakistan was not normal. That commando team also aimed at inspiring the people of Dhaka, who were frequently victims of killing and torture. The Crack Platoon successfully fulfilled these objectives. The World Bank mission, in its report, clearly described the hazardous situation prevailing in East Pakistan and urged ending the military regime in East Pakistan.[40] The Crack Platoon carried out several successful and important operations. The power supply in Dhaka was devastated[41][42] which caused severe problems for the Pakistan Army and the military administration in Dhaka.

Modern special forces

ODA 525 team picture taken shortly before infiltration in Iraq, February 1991

Admiral William H. McRaven, formerly the ninth commanding officer of the U.S. Special Operations Command (2011–2014), described two approaches to special forces operations in the 2012 posture statement to the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services: "the direct approach is characterized by technologically enabled small-unit precision lethality, focused intelligence, and inter-agency cooperation integrated on a digitally-networked battlefield", whereas the "indirect approach includes empowering host nation forces, providing appropriate assistance to humanitarian agencies, and engaging key populations."[43] Elements of national power must be deployed in concert without over-reliance on a single capability, such as special forces, that leaves the entire force unprepared and hollow across the spectrum of military operations.[44]

Throughout the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st century, special forces have come to higher prominence, as governments have found objectives can sometimes be better achieved by a small team of anonymous specialists than a larger and much more politically controversial conventional deployment. In both

air power.

Irish Army Ranger Wing operators during patrol in Chad, 2008

Typically, guerrilla

fighters would engage enemy soldiers and tanks causing them to move, where they could be seen and attacked from the air.

Chinook helicopter
in 2012

Special forces have been used in both wartime and peacetime military operations such as the

of 2019.

The

U.S. invasion of Afghanistan involved special forces from several coalition nations, who played a major role in removing the Taliban
from power in 2001–2002. Special forces have continued to play a role in combating the Taliban in subsequent operations.

As gender restrictions are being removed in parts of the world, females are applying for special forces units selections and in 2014 the Norwegian Special Operation Forces established an all female unit Jegertroppen (English: Hunter Troop).

Tier One units

These are the highest level of military special forces, as in the highest trained and usually the most secretive.[citation needed] Examples would be the special mission units of the Australian and United States special operations forces.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b North Atlantic Treaty Organization (13 December 2013). "Allied Joint Doctrine for Special Operations". NATO Standard Allied Joint Publication. AJP-3.5 (Edition A, Version 1). Brussels: NATO Standardization Agency: 1.
  2. .
  3. ^ Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) (16 July 2014). "Special Operations" (PDF). Joint Publication. 3–05. Washington, DC: Department of Defense: GL-11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  4. ^ North Atlantic Treaty Organization (2013). "NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions (English and French)" (PDF). Brussels: NATO Standardization Agency. p. 2-S-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  5. ^ Thomas 1983, p. 690.
  6. ^ Headquarters, Department of the Army (July 2019). "ADRP 3-05 SPECIAL OPERATIONS" (PDF). Army Publishing Directorate. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  7. .
  8. ^ Yuval Noah Harari, Special Operations in the Age of Chivalry, 1100-1550 https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt81v7j
  9. ^ PRAÇA DO GIRALDO, EvoraPortugalTourism.com https://www.evoraportugaltourism.com/guide/praca-de-giraldo.html
  10. ^ Clemente Ramos, 653 n14: El perro caminaba en noches lluviosas y muy oscuras, de fuerte viento y nieve, hacia las ciudades y había preparado sus instrumentos de escalas de madera muy largas, que sobrepasen el muro de la ciudad, aplicaba aquellas escaleras al costado de la torre y subía por ellas el primero, hasta la torre y cogía al centinela y le decía: "Grita como es tu costumbre," para que no le sintiese la gente. Cuando se había completado la subida de su grupo a lo más alto del muro de la ciudad, gritaban en su lengua con un alarido execrable, y entraban en la ciudad y combatían al que encontraban y le robaban y cogían a todos los que había en ella cautivos y prisioneros a todos los que estaban allí.
  11. .
  12. ^ Porto Editora – Geraldo Geraldes, o Sem Pavor na Infopédia [em linha]. Porto: Porto Editora. [consult. 2022-04-22 22:05:13]. Disponível em https://www.infopedia.pt/$geraldo-geraldes-o-sem-pavor
  13. ^ Christides, Vassilios. "Military Intelligence in Arabo-Byzantine Naval Warfare" (PDF). Institute for Byzantine Studies, Athens. pp. 276–80. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-25. Retrieved 2011-08-02.
  14. .
  15. ^ "The Corps of Guides – the original Indian Army special forces." ..."The Scouts were not subordinate to any brigade or division but were army troops – deployed at the discretion of the field force commander." (Bellamy 2011, p. 115)
  16. .
  17. .
  18. .
  19. .
  20. ^ Haskew, p. 47
  21. ^ .
  22. .
  23. ^ .
  24. Ministère de la Défense
    . Retrieved 17 April 2010.
  25. ^ "The history of the Commando Foundation". Korps Commandotroepen. Archived from the original on 31 October 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
  26. ^ "Centre d'Entraînement de Commandos". Ministère de la Défense,la Composante Terre. Archived from the original on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
  27. .
  28. ^ .
  29. .
  30. ^ a b c d "Everything you need to know about the Polish Special Unit GROM".
  31. ^ Horner 1989, p. 21.
  32. ^ Horner 1989, pp. 22–6.
  33. ^ Horner 1989, p. 26.
  34. ^ Horner 1989, pp. 26–7.
  35. ^ The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency, Michael Warner, CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, United States Central Intelligence Agency (2000)
  36. ^ .
  37. .
  38. .
  39. ^ Gavshon, Arthur L. (14 July 1971). "Experts Cite Remedial Measures for East Pakistan". The Day. Retrieved 31 May 2013. In a secret report, the 10-man [World Bank] mission discreetly but unmistakably urges the military ruler of that South Asian land to remove – as a first step – some of his West Pakistani troops who stand accused of terrorizing the population. [...] Other suggested moves [...]:
    – Appointment of a civilian administrator for the eastern province.
  40. ^ "3 Power Plants Bombed By East Pakistan Rebels". Morning Record. 22 July 1971.
  41. ^ "Pakistan Rebels Bomb Plant". The Daily News. 22 October 1971.
  42. ^ "POSTURE STATEMENT OF ADMIRAL WILLIAM H. McRAVEN, USN COMMANDER, UNITED STATES SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND BEFORE THE 112th CONGRESS SENATE ARMED SERVICES COMMITTEE MARCH 6, 2012" (PDF). United States Special Operations Command. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
  43. ^ "Special Operations for the 21st Century: Starting Over" (PDF). Association of the United States Army. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2015.

References