Syndemic
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Syndemics combine the synergies of epidemics to evaluate how social and health conditions travel together, in what ways they interact, and what upstream drivers may produce their interactions.[1] The idea of syndemics is that no disease exists in isolation and that often population health can be understood through a confluence of factors (such as climate change or social inequality) that produces multiple health conditions that afflict some populations and not others.[2] Syndemics are not like pandemics (where the same social forces produce clustered conditions equally around the world); instead, syndemics reflect population-level trends within certain states, regions, cities, or towns.[3][4]
A syndemic or
The syndemic approach departs from the biomedical approach to diseases to diagnostically isolate, study, and treat diseases as distinct entities separate from other diseases and independent of social contexts.
Definition
A syndemic is a
Syndemic Methods: from historical archives to mathematical models
Methods for evaluating syndemics have been a focus on scholarship for deepening the application of what has largely served as theory to understand why and how social and health conditions cluster together, interact, and are driven by shared forces, from climate (such as escalation of heat, rain, drought, and events) to poverty (such as food insecurity, poor housing, lack of safety, and limited work opportunities).[15] In 2022, Alexander Tsai (an epidemiologist), Emily Mendenhall (a medical anthropologist), and Timothy Newfield (a historian) teamed up on a Special Issue in Social Science and Medicine to explore the various methodological ways in which syndemics can be understood, interpreted, and evaluated through history.[16] For instance, historical syndemics may be evaluated using archival data that is incomplete but provides a novel way of thinking about disease biography.[17] This is exemplified by Dylann Atcher Proctor's historical work on gastrointestinal distress in Gabon using historical archives that had never yet been evaluated on their own or synergistically.[18]
Ethnographic data provides a deeper understanding of how and why larger social forces produce disease clusters and interactions and are crucial for understanding "why" syndemics occurr. Ethnographic insights have served as the bedrock of syndemic thinking since Merrill Singer's pioneering intellectual and practical work with the concept beginning in the 1990s. His first article based on ethnographic thinking about the SAVA Syndemic came from real time observations as the AIDS epidemic that unfolded in tandem with substance use amidst structural violence in urban America throughout the 1990s and early 2000s.[19] Singer demonstrated how it was impossible to think about one condition without contextualizing the broader social, structural, and health contexts in which people lived. Discussion of ethnographic methods were detailed in Emily Mendenhall's books Syndemic Suffering[20] and Rethinking Diabetes[21] and is also exemplified in Mac Marshall's book Drinking Smoke.[22]
The largest body of methodological scholarship has emerged around the utility of epidemiological data.[23] Epidemiological data provides opportunities to investigate the synergistic ways in which diseases emerge and interact with social and health conditions.[24] This latter method has been the focus of contention, particularly in dialogue between Alexander Tsai and Ronald Stall.[25][26] Early epidemiological studies, for example, evaluated the ways in which social and health conditions co-occurred. Tsai argued that instead, there is a deeper need to interrogate how conditions syngistically interact to cause more adverse health conditions that the conditions would produce on their own. This has led to a slough of emergent research interrogating mathematical models that can take seriously how health conditions may cluster together and interact to affect the health and well being of populations residing in a specific nation, region, city, or town. A particularly useful model based on the Soweto Syndemics study was published in Nature Human Behavior.[27] In particular, spatial models for thinking through syndemic clusters, such as using GIS, are an emerging area of interest in syndemics research.[28][29]
Types of disease interaction
Diseases regularly interact and this interaction influences disease course, expression, severity, transmission, and diffusion. Interaction among diseases may be both indirect (changes caused by one disease that facilitate another through an intermediary) and direct (diseases act in direct tandem).[citation needed]
- One disease can assist the physical transmission of the microbe causing another disease, for example, genital-tract ulceration caused by syphilis allowing sexual transmission of HIV.[citation needed]
- One disease may enhance the virulence of another, as for example, herpes simplex virus co-infection exacerbates HIV infection with progression to AIDS,[citation needed] periodontal bacteria may enhance the virulence of herpesvirus,[citation needed] HIV-infected individuals are more susceptible to tuberculosis; As of 2011, the cause was not fully understood.[30][31][32]
- Changes in biochemistry or damage to organ systems, as for example diabetes weakening the immune system, promotes the progression of another disease, SARS.[citation needed]
- A pneumococcus, causes excess mortality from secondary bacterial pneumonia during influenza epidemics. Influenza virus alters the lungs in ways that increase the adherence, invasion and induction of disease by pneumococcus, alters the immune response with weakened ability to clear pneumococcus or, alternately amplifying the inflammatory cascade.[33]
- Direct interaction of diseases occurs in the case of genetic recombination among different pathogens, for instance between Avian sarcoma leukosis virus and Marek's disease virus (MDV) in domestic fowl.[citation needed] Both cancer-causing viruses are known to infect the same poultry flock, the same chicken, and, even the same anatomic cell. In coinfected cells, the retroviral DNA of the avian leukosis virus can integrate into the MDV genome, producing altered biological properties compared to those of the parental MDV. The frequency of gene reassortment among human pathogens is less clear than it is the among plant or animal species but of concern as animal diseases adapt to human hosts and as man new diseases comes into contact.[citation needed]
- When one disease diminishes or eradicates another it is a counter-syndemic disease interaction.[citation needed]
- The linkage also may not be clear, despite apparent syndemic interactions among diseases, as for example in type 2 diabetes mellitus and hepatitis C virus infection.[citation needed]
Iatrogenic
The term
Examples
Various syndemics though not always labeled as such have been described in the literature, including:
- SAVA syndemic (substance abuse, violence and AIDS,[34][35][36][37][38]
- the VIDDA syndemic (violence, immigration/isolation, depression, diabetes, abuse)[39]
- the hookworm, malaria and HIV/AIDS syndemic,[40]
- the congestive heart failure syndemic,[41]
- the possible infectious disease syndemic,[42]
- the malnutrition and depression syndemic,[citation needed]
- the TB, HIV and violence syndemic,[43]
- the whooping cough, influenza, tuberculosis syndemic, [citation needed]
- the HIV incidence, substance use, mental health, childhood sexual abuse, and intimate partner violence syndemics[44]
- the HIV and STD syndemic,[citation needed]
- the
- the HIV infection, mental health and substance abuse syndemic.[48]
- the Prince Charles pointed out in January 2006, in a speech at the Enhancing the Healing Environment conference hosted by The Prince's Foundation for the Built Environment and The King's Fund, St James's Palace, London.[citation needed]
- HIV infection and opportunistic microbial infections and viral-caused malignancies like Kaposi's sarcoma [citation needed]
- periodontitis and herpes virus: bacteria of several different species (e.g., Porphyromonas gingivalis, Dialister pneumosintes, Prevotella intermedia) that adhere to and reproduce on tooth surfaces under the gum line multiply when bodily defenses are weakened by an HSV infection of the periodontium.[citation needed]
- HIV being transiently suppressed during an acute RANTES, a chemokine that attracts immune system components like eosinophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes were higher in HIV-infected children with measles than in those without measles (Moss and co-workers).[citation needed]
- HIV suppression in tsutsugamuchi disease or scrub typhus, a mite-borne infection in Asia and Australia, but how this occurs is unclear.[citation needed]
- SARS‑CoV‑2 coronavirus infection combined with an epidemic of non-communicable diseases, both inter-acting on a social substrate of poverty and inequality, according to Richard Horton in the Lancet Global Burden of Diseasestudy 2020 (GBD 2020).
19th century Native American
Contact between Native Americans and Europeans during the
An example of a syndemic from the 19th century can be found on the reservations on which Native Americans were confined with the closing of the U.S. frontier. It is estimated that in 1860 there were well over 10 million
The Sioux were victims of a syndemic of interacting infectious diseases including the
Influenza
There were three influenza
The
The worst of the 20th-century influenza pandemics was the
Climate change
As a result of the floral changes produced by global warming, an escalation is occurring in global rates of allergies and asthma. Allergic diseases constitute the sixth leading cause of chronic illness in the United States, impacting 17 percent of the population. Asthma affects about 8 percent of the U.S. population, with rising tendency, especially in low income, ethnic minority neighborhoods in cities. In 1980 asthma affected only about three percent of the U.S. population according to the U.S. CDC. Asthma among children has been increasing at an even faster pace than among adults, with the percentage of children with asthma going up from 3.6 percent in 1980 to 9 percent in 2005. Among ethnic minority populations, like Puerto Ricans the rate of asthma is 125 percent higher than non-Hispanic white people and 80 percent higher than non-Hispanic black people. The asthma prevalence among American Indians, Alaska Natives and black people is 25 percent higher than in white people.[citation needed]
Air pollution
Increases in asthma rates have occurred despite improvements in air quality produced by the passage and enforcement of clean air legislation, such as the U.S. Clean Air Act of 1963 and the Clean Air Act of 1990. Existing legislation and regulation have not kept pace with changing climatic conditions and their health consequences. Compounding the problem of air quality is the fact that air-borne pollens have been found to attach themselves to diesel particles from truck or other vehicular exhaust floating in the air, resulting in heightened rates of asthma in areas where busy roads bisect densely populated areas, most notably in poorer inner-city areas.
For every elevation of 10 μg/m3 in
The damaging effects of diesel fuel pollution go beyond a synergistic role in asthma development. Exposure to a combination of microscopic diesel fuel particles among people with high blood cholesterol (i.e.,
A Note on Mathematical Models
A
For example, modelling to quantify the syndemic effects of malaria and HIV in sub-Saharan Africa based on research in Kisumu, Kenya researchers found that 5% of HIV infections (or 8,500 cases of HIV since 1980) in Kisumu are the result of the higher HIV infectiousness of malaria-infected HIV patients. Additionally, their model attributed 10% of adult malaria episodes (or almost one million excess malaria infections since 1980) to the greater susceptibility of HIV infected individuals to malaria. Their model also suggests that HIV has contributed to the wider geographic spread of malaria in Africa, a process previously thought to be the consequence primarily of global warming.[49] Modelling offers an enormously useful tool for anticipating future syndemics, including eco-syndemic, based on information about the spread of various diseases across the planet and the consequent co-infections and disease interactions that will result.[50]
PopMod is a longitudinal population tool developed in 2003 that models distinct and possibly interacting diseases. Unlike other life-table population models, PopMod is designed to not assume the statistical independence of the diseases of interest. The PopMod has several intended purposes, including describing the time evolution of population health for standard demographic purposes (such as estimating healthy life expectancy in a population), and providing a standard measure of effectiveness for health interventions and cost-effectiveness analysis. PopMod is used as one of the standard tools of the World Health Organization's (
Future research
First, there is a need for studies that examine the processes by which syndemics emerge, the specific sets of health and social conditions that foster multiple epidemics in a population and how syndemics function to produce specific kinds of health outcomes in populations.[
See also
- Endemic
- List of epidemics
- List of human diseases associated with infectious pathogens
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Further reading
Books
- Marshall, Mac 2013 Drinking Smoke: The Tobacco Syndemic in Oceania. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaiʻi Press.
- Mendenhall, Emily 2012 Syndemic Suffering: Social Distress, Depression, and Diabetes among Mexican Immigrant Women. Left Coast Press, Inc.
- Singer, Merrill 2009 Introduction to Syndemics: A Critical Systems Approach to Public and Community Health. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Articles, chapters
- Alisjahbana, B.; van Crevel, R.; Sahiratmadja, E.; den Heijer, M.; Maya, A.; Istriana, E.; Danusantoso, H.; Ottenhoff, T. H. M.; Nelwan, R. H. H.; van der Meer, J. W. M. (June 1, 2006). "Diabetes mellitus is strongly associated with tuberculosis in Indonesia". The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. 10 (6): 696–700. PMID 16776459.
- Andreani, Guadalupe; Lodge, Robert; Richard, Dave; Tremblay, Michel J. (May 2012). "Mechanisms of interaction between protozoan parasites and HIV". Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS. 7 (3): 275–281. S2CID 20452015.
- Biello, K.B., Colby, D., Closson, E., Mimiaga, M.J., 2014. "The syndemic condition of psychosocial problems and HIV risk among male sex workers in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam". AIDS Behav 18, 1264–1271. .
- Biello, K.B., Oldenburg, C.E., Safren, S.A., Rosenberger, J.G., Novak, D.S., Mayer, K.H., Mimiaga, M.J., 2016. Multiple syndemic psychosocial factors are associated with reduced engagement in HIV care among a multinational, online sample of HIV-infected MSM in Latin America. AIDS Care 28 Suppl 1, 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2016.1146205
- Blashill AJ, Bedoya CA, Mayer KH, O'Cleirigh C, Pinkston MM, Remmert JE, Mimiaga MJ, Safren SA. Psychosocial Syndemics are Additively Associated with Worse ART Adherence in HIV-Infected Individuals. AIDS Behav. 2015 Jun;19(6):981-6. doi: 10.1007/s10461-014-0925-6. PMID 25331267; PMCID: PMC4405426.
- Bini, Edmund J.; Perumalswami, Ponni V. (2010). "Hepatitis B virus infection among American patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection: Prevalence, racial/ethnic differences, and viral interactions". Hepatology. 51 (3): 759–66. PMID 20140950.
- Brennan, Julia; Kuhns, Lisa M.; Johnson, Amy K.; Belzer, Marvin; Wilson, Erin C.; Garofalo, Robert; Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions (September 2012). "Syndemic Theory and HIV-Related Risk Among Young Transgender Women: The Role of Multiple, Co-Occurring Health Problems and Social Marginalization". American Journal of Public Health. 102 (9): 1751–1757. PMID 22873480.
- Bruce, Douglas; Harper, Gary W.; Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS, Interventions. (August 2011). "Operating Without a Safety Net: Gay Male Adolescents and Emerging Adults' Experiences of Marginalization and Migration, and Implications for Theory of Syndemic Production of Health Disparities". Health Education & Behavior. 38 (4): 367–378. PMID 21398621.
- David, Brunarski (2011). "The Increasing Threat of Syndemics and the Role of Chiropractic Care". Dynamic Chiropractic. 4 (2): 1.[permanent dead link] http://www.dynamicchiropractic.ca/mpacms/dc_ca/article.php?id=55088&no_paginate=true&p_friendly=true&no_b=true[permanent dead link]
- Brunner, E. J.; Chandola, T.; Marmot, M. G. (February 19, 2007). "Prospective Effect of Job Strain on General and Central Obesity in the Whitehall II Study". American Journal of Epidemiology. 165 (7): 828–837. PMID 17244635.
- Bulled, Nicola; Singer, Merrill (October 2011). "Syringe-Mediated Syndemics". AIDS and Behavior. 15 (7): 1539–1545. S2CID 25317922.
- "Portrait of a Killer". Science. January 17, 2007.
- Chaulk, C. Patrick; Kazandjian, Vahé A. (September 2004). "Moving Beyond Randomized Controlled Trials". American Journal of Public Health. 94 (9): 1476. PMID 15333296.
- Cohen, Craig R.; Duerr, Ann; Pruithithada, Niwat; Rugpao, Sungwal; Garcia, Patricia; Nelson, Kenrad; Hillier, Sharon (September 1995). "Bacterial vaginosis and HIV seroprevalence among female commercial sex workers in Chiang Mai, Thailand". AIDS. 9 (9): 1093–1098. S2CID 25056144.
- Chu, P., Santos, G.-M., Vu, A., Nieves-Rivera, G., Colfax, J., Grinsdale, S., Huang, S., Phillip, S., Scheer, S. and Aragon, T. 2012 Impact of syndemics on people living with HIV in San Francisco. Presented at the XIX International AIDS Conference, Washington, D.C. (MOACO202 Oral Abstract).
- Conant, Katelyn L.; Kaleeba, Johnan A. R.; Kaleeba, JA (2013). "Dangerous liaisons: molecular basis for a syndemic relationship between Kaposi's sarcoma and P. falciparum malaria". Frontiers in Microbiology. 4: 35. PMID 23487416.
- Corrêa-Oliveira, Rodrigo; Golgher, Denise B; Oliveira, Guilherme C; Carvalho, Omar S; Massara, Cristiano L; Caldas, Iramaya R; Colley, Daniel G; Gazzinelli, Giovanni (August 2002). "Infection with Schistosoma mansoni correlates with altered immune responses to Ascaris lumbricoides and hookworm". Acta Tropica. 83 (2): 123–132. PMID 12088853.
- Cui Yang; Koblin Beryl (2011). "Migration, Neighborhoods, and Networks: Approaches to Understanding How Urban Environmental Conditions Affect Syndemic Adverse Health Outcomes Among Gay, Bisexual and Other Men Who Have Sex With Men". AIDS and Behavior. 15 (Suppl 1): S35–S50. PMID 21369730.
- Daftary A (2012). "HIV and tuberculosis: The construction and management of double stigma". Social Science & Medicine. 74 (10): 1512–19. PMID 22444460.
- Daftary A.; Padayatchi N. (2012). "Social constraints to TB/HIV healthcare: Accounts from coinfected patients in South Africa". AIDS Care. 24 (12): 1480–86. PMID 22530855.
- Santis De, Joseph Layerla, Dennys Barroso, Susana Gattamorta, Karina Sanchez, Michael, Prado Guillermo (2012). "Predictors of Eating Attitudes and Behaviors Among Gay Hispanic Men". Archives of Nursing. 26 (2): 111–126. PMID 22449559.)
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- Dyer TV, Turpin RE, Stall R, Khan MR, Nelson LE, Brewer R, Friedman MR, Mimiaga MJ, Cook RL, OʼCleirigh C, Mayer KH. Latent Profile Analysis of a Syndemic of Vulnerability Factors on Incident Sexually Transmitted Infection in a Cohort of Black Men Who Have Sex With Men Only and Black Men Who Have Sex With Men and Women in the HIV Prevention Trials Network 061 Study. Sex Transm Dis. 2020 Sep;47(9):571-579. doi: 10.1097/OLQ.0000000000001208. PMID 32496390; PMCID: PMC7442627
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- Ferlatte Oliver, Hottes Travis, Trussler Terry, Marchand Rick (2013). "Evidence of a Syndemic Among Young Canadian Gay and Bisexual Men: Uncovering the Associations Between Anti-gay Experiences, Psychosocial Issues, and HIV Risk". AIDS and Behavior. 18 (7): 1256–1263. S2CID 23665615.)
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- González-Guarda Rosa (2009). "The Syndemic Orientation: Implications for Eliminating Hispanic Health Disparities". Hispanic Health Care International. 7 (3): 114–15. .
- Gilbert, Louisa, Primbetova, Sholpan, Nikitin, Danil, Hunt, Timothy, Terlikbayeva, Assel, Momenghalibaf, Azzi, Murodali, Ruziev and El-Bassel, Nabila 2013 Redressing the epidemics of opioid overdose and HIV among people who inject drugs in Central Asia: The need for a syndemic approach. Drug and Alcohol Dependence (in press).
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- González-Guarda Rosa; McCabe B.; Florom-Smith A.; Cianelli R.; Peragallo N. (2011). "Substance Abuse, Violence, HIV, and Depression: An Underlying Syndemic Factor Among Latinas". Nursing Research. 60 (3): 182–89. PMID 21522030.
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- Guadamuz, Thomas, Friedman, Mark, Marshal, Michael, Herrick, Amy, Lim, Sin How, Wei, Chongyi, and Stall, Ron 2013 Health, Sexual Health, and Syndemics: Toward a Better Approach to STI and HIV Preventive Interventions for Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) in the United States. In S. Aral, K. Fenton, J. Lipshuz, Eds. The New Public Health and STD/HIV Prevention: Personal, Public and Health Systems Approaches. New York: Springer Sciences and Business Media.
- Guadamuz T.E., McCarthy K., Wimonsate W., Thienkrua W., Varangrat A., Chaikummao S., Sangiamkittikul A., Stall R.D., van Griensven F. (2014). "Psychosocial Health Conditions and HIV Prevalence and Incidence in a Cohort of Men Who have Sex with Men in Bangkok, Thailand: Evidence of a Syndemic Effect". AIDS and Behavior. 18 (11): 2089–2096. PMID 24989128.)
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External links
- Syndemic Prevention Network: Home
- Merrill Singer (October 2008). "The Perfect Epidemiological Storm: food insecurity, HiV/aids and Poverty in southern africa" (PDF). In Focus. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 7, 2011.
- Wayback Machine
- Jack Homer; Bobby Milstein (April 2003). "A Dynamic Simulation Model of Syndemics: Casual Structure, Assumptions, and Results" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 5, 2019. Retrieved December 10, 2007.