Diesel exhaust
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Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel type of internal combustion engine, plus any contained particulates. Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption, or speed of engine operation (e.g., idling or at speed or under load), and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle, farm vehicle, locomotive, marine vessel, or stationary generator or other application.[1]
Diesel exhaust is a
Methods exist to reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) in the exhaust. So, while diesel fuel contains slightly more carbon (2.68 kg CO₂/litre) than petrol (2.31 kg CO₂/litre), overall CO₂ emissions of a diesel car tend to be lower due to higher efficiency. In use, on average, this equates to around 200 g CO₂/km for petrol and 120 g CO₂/km for diesel.
Composition
The primary products of
The physical and chemical conditions that exist inside any such diesel engines under any conditions differ considerably from spark-ignition engines, because, by design, diesel engine power is directly controlled by the fuel supply, not by control of the air/fuel mixture, as in conventional gasoline engines.[9] As a result of these differences, diesel engines generally produce a different array of pollutants than spark-driven engines, differences that are sometimes qualitative (what pollutants are there, and what are not), but more often quantitative (how much of particular pollutants or pollutant classes are present in each). For instance, diesel engines produce one-twenty-eighth the carbon monoxide that gasoline engines do, as they burn their fuel in excess air even at full load.[10][11][12]
However, the lean-burning nature of diesel engines and the high temperatures and pressures of the combustion process result in significant production of
Moreover, the
Diesel exhausts, long known for their characteristic smells, changed significantly with the reduction of sulfur content of diesel fuel, and again when catalytic converters were introduced in exhaust systems.[not verified in body] Even so, diesel exhausts continue to contain an array of inorganic and organic pollutants, in various classes, and in varying concentrations (see below), depending on fuel composition and engine running conditions.
Exhaust gas composition according to various sources
Average Diesel engine exhaust composition (Reif 2014)[17] | Average Diesel engine exhaust composition (Merker, Teichmann, 2014)[18] | Diesel's first engine exhaust composition (Hartenstein, 1895)[19] | Diesel engine exhaust composition (Khair, Majewski, 2006)[20] | Diesel engine exhaust composition (various sources) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | Volume percentage | Volume percentage | Volume percentage | (Volume?) percentage | |
Nitrogen (N2) | 75.2% | 72.1% | - | ~67 % | - |
Oxygen (O2) | 15% | 0.7% | 0.5% | ~9 % | - |
Carbon dioxide (CO2) | 7.1% | 12.3% | 12.5% | ~12 % | - |
Water (H2O) | 2.6% | 13.8% | - | ~11 % | - |
Carbon monoxide (CO) | 0.043% | 0.09% | 0.1% | - | 100–500 ppm[21] |
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
|
0.034% | 0.13% | - | - | 50–1000 ppm[22] |
Hydrocarbons (HC)
|
0.005% | 0.09% | - | - | - |
Aldehyde | 0.001% | n/a | |||
Particulate matter (sulfate + solid substances) | 0.008% | 0.0008% | - | - | 1–30 mg·m−3[23] |
Chemical classes
The following are classes of chemical compounds that have been found in diesel exhaust.[24]
Class of chemical contaminant | Note |
---|---|
antimony compounds[citation needed] | Toxicity similar to arsenic poisoning[25] |
beryllium compounds | IARC Group 1 carcinogens
|
chromium compounds[26] | IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens
|
cobalt compounds | |
cyanide compounds[26] | |
dioxins[26] and dibenzofurans | |
manganese compounds[26] | |
mercury compounds[26] | IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens
|
nitrogen oxides[26] |
5.6 ppm or 6500 μg/m³[1] |
polycyclic organic matter, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)[1][26] |
|
selenium compounds | |
sulfur compounds[26] |
Specific chemicals
The following are classes of specific chemicals that have been found in diesel exhaust.[26][verification needed][needs update][1][page needed][verification needed]
Chemical contaminant | Note | Concentration, ppm |
---|---|---|
acetaldehyde | IARC Group 2B (possible) carcinogens |
|
acrolein | IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens |
|
aniline | IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens |
|
arsenic | IARC Group 1 carcinogens, endocrine disruptor[citation needed ] |
|
benzene[1] | IARC Group 1 carcinogens |
|
biphenyl | Mild toxicity[citation needed] | |
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate | Endocrine disruptor[27][28][29][30] | |
1,3-Butadiene |
IARC Group 2A carcinogens |
|
cadmium | IARC Group 1 carcinogens, endocrine disruptor[citation needed ] |
|
chlorine | Byproduct of urea injection[citation needed] | |
chlorobenzene | "[L]ow to moderate" toxicity[31] | |
cresol§ | ||
dibutyl phthalate | Endocrine disruptor[citation needed] | |
1,8-dinitropyrene | Strongly carcinogenic[32][33] | |
ethylbenzene | ||
formaldehyde | IARC Group 1 carcinogens |
|
inorganic lead | Endocrine disruptor[citation needed] | |
methanol | ||
methyl ethyl ketone | ||
naphthalene | IARC Group 2B carcinogens |
|
nickel | IARC Group 2B carcinogens |
|
3-nitrobenzanthrone (3-NBA) | Strongly carcinogenic[32][34] | 0.6-6.6[35] |
4-nitrobiphenyl | Irritant, damages nerves/liver/kidneys[36] | 2.2[37][38] |
phenol | ||
phosphorus | ||
pyrene[1] | 3532–8002[37][39] | |
benzo(e)pyrene | 487–946[37][39] | |
benzo(a)pyrene | IARC Group 1 carcinogen |
208–558[37][39] |
fluoranthene[1] | IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens
|
3399–7321[37][39] |
propionaldehyde | ||
styrene | IARC Group 2B carcinogens |
|
toluene | IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens |
|
xylene§ | IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens |
§Includes all regioisomers of this aromatic compound. See ortho-, meta-, and para-isomer descriptions at each compound's article.
Regulation
This section needs expansion with: a general introduction with citations that covers current international agreements and federal regulations in English-speaking countries. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015) |
To rapidly reduce particulate matter from heavy-duty diesel engines in California, the California Air Resources Board created the Carl Moyer Memorial Air Quality Standards Attainment Program to provide funding for upgrading engines ahead of emissions regulations.[40] In 2008, the California Air Resources Board also implemented the 2008 California Statewide Truck and Bus Rule which requires all heavy-duty diesel trucks and buses, with a few exceptions, that operate in California to either retrofit or replace engines in order to reduce diesel particulate matter.[citation needed] The US Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) issued a health standard in January 2001 designed to reduce diesel exhaust exposure in underground metal and nonmetal mines; on September 7, 2005, MSHA published a notice in the Federal Register proposing to postpone the effective date from January 2006 until January 2011.[citation needed]
Sulfur content:
Unlike international shipping, that has a Sulfur limit at 3.5% mass/mass outside ECA until 2020, where it reduces to 0,5% outside ECA, diesel for on road use and off-road (heavy equipment) has been limited in all of EU since 2009.
"Diesel and gasoline have been limited to 10 ppm sulfur since 2009 (for on-road vehicles) and 2011 (non-road vehicles). Mandatory specifications also apply to more than a dozen fuel parameters."[41]
Health concerns
General concerns
Emissions from diesel vehicles have been reported to be significantly more harmful than those from petrol vehicles.
Occupational health effects
Exposure to diesel exhaust and diesel particulate matter (DPM) is an occupational hazard to
using diesel-powered equipment in underground mines. Adverse health effects have also been observed in the general population at ambient atmospheric particle concentrations well below the concentrations in occupational settings.In March 2012, U.S. government scientists showed that underground miners exposed to high levels of diesel fumes have a threefold increased risk for contracting lung cancer compared with those exposed to low levels. The $11.5 million Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study (DEMS) followed 12,315 miners, controlling for key carcinogens such as cigarette smoke, radon, and asbestos. This allowed scientists to isolate the effects of diesel fumes.[48][49]
For over 10 years, concerns have been raised in the USA regarding children's exposure to DPM as they ride diesel-powered school buses to and from school.[50] In 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established the Clean School Bus USA initiative in an effort to unite private and public organizations in curbing student exposures.[51]
Concerns regarding particulates
Diesel particulate matter (DPM), sometimes also called diesel exhaust particles (DEP), is the
The main particulate fraction of diesel exhaust consists of
A study of
Specific effects
Exposures have been linked with acute short-term symptoms such as
The NERC-HPA funded Traffic Pollution and Health in London project at King's College London is currently[when?] seeking to refine understanding of the health effects of traffic pollution.[58] Ambient traffic-related air pollution was associated with decreased cognitive function in older men.[46]
Mortality from diesel soot exposure in 2001 was at least 14,400 out of the German population of 82 million, according to the official report 2352 of the Umweltbundesamt Berlin (Federal Environmental Agency of Germany).[citation needed]
The study of nanoparticles and
Since the study of the detrimental health effects of nanoparticles (nanotoxicology) is still in its infancy, and the nature and extent of negative health impacts from diesel exhaust continues to be discovered, it remains controversial whether the public health impact of diesels is higher than that of petrol-fueled vehicles.[60]
Variation with engine conditions
The types and quantities of nanoparticles can vary according to operating temperatures and pressures, presence of an open flame, fundamental fuel type and fuel mixture, and even atmospheric mixtures. As such, the resulting types of nanoparticles from different engine technologies and even different fuels are not necessarily comparable. One study has shown that 95% of the volatile component of diesel nanoparticles is unburned lubricating oil.[61] Long-term effects still need to be further clarified, as well as the effects on susceptible groups of people with cardiopulmonary diseases.
Diesel engines can produce black soot (or more specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust. The black smoke consists of carbon compounds that have not burned because of local low temperatures where the fuel is not fully atomized. These local low temperatures occur at the cylinder walls, and at the surface of large droplets of fuel. At these areas where it is relatively cold, the mixture is rich (contrary to the overall mixture which is lean). The rich mixture has less air to burn and some of the fuel turns into a carbon deposit. Modern car engines use a diesel particulate filter (DPF) to capture carbon particles and then intermittently burn them using extra fuel injected directly into the filter. This prevents carbon buildup at the expense of wasting a small quantity of fuel.
The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is defined by the "black smoke limit", beyond which point the fuel cannot be completely burned. As the "black smoke limit" is still considerably lean of stoichiometric, it is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but the resultant inefficient combustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced combustion efficiency, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke. This is only done in high performance applications where these disadvantages are of little concern.
When starting from cold, the engine's combustion efficiency is reduced because the cold engine block draws heat out of the cylinder in the compression stroke.
Wärtsilä states that there are two ways of forming smoke, on large diesel engines, one being fuel hitting metal and not having time to burn off. The other being, when too much fuel is in the combustion chamber.
Wärtsilä have tested an engine and compared smoke-output, when using conventional fuel system and common rail fuel system, the result shows improvement on all operation conditions when using the common rail system.[63]
Ecological effects
This section is missing information about NOx emissions. They affect smog, ozone, acid rain, and pulmonary problems. (January 2017) |
Experiments in 2013 showed that diesel exhaust impaired
Emissions from diesel engines contribute to the production of ground-level ozone, which can damage crops, trees, and other vegetation. Diesel exhaust also contributes to the formation of acid rain, which affects soil, lakes, and streams, and can enter the human food chain via water, produce, meat, and fish.[65]
Diesel exhaust plays a role in climate change. Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from diesel engines through improved fuel economy or idle reduction strategies can help address climate change, improve our nation’s energy security, and strengthen our economy.[65]
Remedies
reliable, independent, third-party sources. (October 2015) ) |
General
With
Selective catalytic reduction
Exhaust gas recirculation
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), on diesel engines, can be used to achieve a richer fuel to air mixture and a lower peak combustion temperature. Both effects reduce
Combined systems
Other remedies
A new technology being tested in 2016 has been created by
In India, the Chakr Dual Fuel Kit retrofits a diesel generator set to operate on a mixture of both gas and diesel, with 70% natural gas and 30% fossil fuel.[76]
This section needs expansion with: the further sourced content on such things as diesel particulate filters and use of alternate fuels, placed here with citations;: significant sentences only with citations, no more top-of-the-head content dumping. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015) |
Water recovery
There has been research into ways that troops in deserts can recover drinkable water from their vehicles' exhaust gases.[77][78][79][80][81]
See also
- Carl Moyer Memorial Air Quality Standards Attainment Program
- List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens
- List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens
- List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens
- List of IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens
- National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
- Rolling coal - intentional creation of conspicuous excessive diesel exhaust
- Vehicle emissions control
- Volkswagen emissions scandal
References and notes
- ^ ISBN 9780470442890.
composition can vary markedly with fuel composition, engine type, operating conditions ... combustion of petroleum fuel produces primarily carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen ... The health risks lie in the small, invisible or poorly visible particles ... carbon (EC) core of diesel soot ... serves as a nucleus for condensation of organic compounds from unburned or incompletely burned fuel ... it still appears that nitrated PAHs are the most predominant bacterial mutagens
- ^ "IARC: DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST CARCINOGENIC" (Press release). International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). June 12, 2012. Retrieved August 14, 2016.
The scientific evidence was reviewed thoroughly by the Working Group and overall it was concluded that there was sufficient evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of diesel exhaust. The Working Group found that diesel exhaust is a cause of lung cancer (sufficient evidence) and also noted a positive association (limited evidence) with an increased risk of bladder cancer
- ^ "Report on Carcinogens: Diesel Exhaust Particulates" (PDF). National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services. October 2, 2014.
Exposure to diesel exhaust particulates is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen, based on limited evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans and supporting evidence from studies in experimental animals and mechanistic studies.
- ^ "Diesel engine exhaust; CASRN N.A." (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003-02-28.
Using U.S. EPA's revised draft 1999 Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment (U.S. EPA, 1999), diesel exhaust (DE) is likely to be carcinogenic to humans by inhalation from environmental exposures.
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- ^ a b IARC. "Diesel Engine Exhaust Carcinogenic" (Press release). International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Retrieved June 12, 2012.
After a week-long meeting of international experts, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), which is part of the World Health Organization (WHO), today classified diesel exhaust as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on enough evidence that exposure is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer.
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- ^ Majewski, W. Addy (2012). "What Are Diesel Emissions". Ecopoint Inc. Retrieved 5 June 2015.[third-party source needed]
- ^ Fuller, Gary (Jul 8, 2012). "Diesel cars emit more nitrogen oxides than petrol cars". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
New diesels produce similar nitrogen oxides to those bought 15 years ago. Typical modern diesel cars emit around 20 times more nitrogen oxides than petrol cars.
- ^ Lean, Geoffrey (Jul 19, 2013). "Why is killer diesel still poisoning our air?". The Telegraph. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
Much of the problem is down to EU emission standards, which have long allowed diesel engines to emit much more nitrogen dioxide than petrol ones.
- ^ Carslaw D., Beevers; S., Westmoreland E.; Williams, M.; Tate, J.; Murrells, T.; Stedman, J.; Li, Y.; Grice, S.; Kent A & Tsagatakis, I. (2011). Trends in NOX and NO2 emissions and ambient measurements in the UK. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.
However, vehicles registered from 2005–2010 emit similar or higher levels of NOx compared with vehicles before 1995. In this respect, NOx emissions from diesel cars have changed little over a period of about 20 years.
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- ^ Grenier, Michael (2005). "Measurement of Carbon Monoxide in Diesel Engine Exhaust" (PDF). IRSST Report (R-436): 11. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ "Gaseous Emissions". DieselNet. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
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- ^ Board, California Air Resources. "The Report on Diesel Exhaust". www.arb.ca.gov. Retrieved 2016-10-11.
Diesel exhaust includes ... acetaldehyde; antimony compounds; arsenic; benzene; beryllium compounds; bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate; dioxins and dibenzofurans; formaldehyde; inorganic lead; mercury compounds; nickel; POM (including PAHs); and styrene.
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i "EPA Report on diesel emissions" (PDF). EPA. 2002. p. 113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-10. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
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- ^ "CDC: Phthalates Overview". 7 September 2021.
High doses of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and benzylbutyl phthalate (BzBP) during the fetal period produced lowered testosterone levels, testicular atrophy, and Sertoli cell abnormalities in the male animals and, at higher doses, ovarian abnormalities in the female animals (Jarfelt et al., 2005; Lovekamp-Swan and Davis, 2003; McKee et al., 2004; NTP-CERHR, 2003a, 2003b, 2006).
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- ^ a b Pearce, Fred. "Devil in the diesel – Lorries belch out what may be the most". New Scientist. Retrieved 2016-10-11.
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- ^ Pubchem. "4-Nitrobiphenyl | C6H5C6H4NO2 - PubChem". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2016-10-11.
Acute (short-term) exposure ... results in irritation of the eyes, mucous membranes, ... Chronic (long-term) exposure ... has resulted in effects on the peripheral and central nervous systems and the liver and kidney.
- ^ a b c d e Report on Carcinogens Background Document for Diesel Exhaust Particulates (PDF). National Toxicology Program. December 3, 1998.
Concentration (ng/mg extract) ... Concentration (μg/g of particles)
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- ^ "EU: Fuels: Diesel and Gasoline | Transport Policy". Retrieved 2019-12-24.
- ^ Vidal, John (Jan 27, 2013). "Diesel fumes more damaging to health than petrol engines". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
- ^ a b "Diesel exhausts do cause cancer, says WHO - BBC News". Bbc.co.uk. 2012-06-12. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
- ^ a b "WHO: Diesel Exhaust Causes Lung Cancer". Medpage Today. 2012-06-12. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
- ^ S2CID 20168936.: "Taking into account the OR and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for traffic exposure (7.4%)... "
- "... [O]dds ratios and frequencies of each trigger were used to compute population-attributable fractions (PAFs), which estimate the proportion of cases that could be avoided if a risk factor were removed. PAFs depend not only on the risk factor strength at the individual level but also on its frequency in the community. ... [T]he exposure prevalence for triggers in the relevant control time window ranged from 0.04% for cocaine use to 100% for air pollution. ... Taking into account the OR and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for traffic exposure (7.4%) ...
- ^ PMID 21172758. Archived from the originalon 2014-11-21.
- better source needed]
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- PMID 22393209.
- ^ Solomon, Gina; Campbell, Todd (January 2001). "No Breathing in the Aisles. Diesel Exhaust Inside School Buses". NRDC.org. Natural Resources Defense Council. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
- ^ "Clean School Bus". EPA.gov. United States Government. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
- ^ "How diesel fumes could cause 'flare up' of respiratory symptoms". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
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- ^ "Effects of Biodiesel on Emissions". dieselnet.com. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
- ^ "Tox Town - Diesel - Toxic chemicals and environmental health risks where you live and work - Text Version". toxtown.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2017-02-04. Retrieved 2017-02-04.
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Particulate matter air pollution contributes to lung cancer incidence in Europe.
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- ^ Int Panis, L; Rabl; De Nocker, L; Torfs, R (2002). "Diesel or Petrol ? An environmental comparison hampered by uncertainty". Mitteilungen Institut für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Thermodynamik, Publisher: Institut für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Thermodynamik. 81 (1): 48–54.
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Further reading
- Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration. Diesel Particulate Matter Exposure of Underground Metal and Nonmetal Miners: Final Rule, January 19, 2001. Federal Register 66(13):5706.
- Monforton, C (2006). "Weight of the Evidence or Wait for the Evidence? Protecting Underground Miners from Diesel Particulate Matter". American Journal of Public Health. 96 (2): 271–276. PMID 16380560. Archived from the originalon 2011-05-25.
- Steenland, K; Silverman, DT; Hornung, DW (1990). "Case control study of lung cancer and truck driving in the Teamsters union". American Journal of Public Health. 80 (6): 670–674. PMID 1693040.
- Steenland, K; Silverman, DT; Zaebst, D (1992). "Exposure to diesel exhaust in the trucking industry and possible relationships with lung cancer". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 21 (6): 887–890. PMID 1621697.
- Bruske-Holhfield, I; Mohner, M; Ahrens, W; et al. (1999). "Lung cancer risk in male workers occupationally exposed to diesel motor emissions in Germany". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 36 (4): 405–414. PMID 10470005.
- Wichmann, H.-E. Abschaetzung positiver gesundheitlicher Auswirkungen durch den Einsatz von Partikelfiltern bei Dieselfahrzeugen in Deutschland Umweltbundesamt Berlin 2003. Report 2352, especially page 32.
- Umweltbundesamt Berlin Future Diesel. Abgasgesetzgebung Pkw, leichte Nfz und Lkw – Fortschreibung der Grenzwerte bei Dieselfahrzeugen 2003. Report 2353, especially page 25.
External links
- Diesel Information Hub Archived 2020-02-24 at the Wayback Machine, AECC
- Emission of different pollutants from diesel engines, EnggStudy
- NIOSH Mining Safety and Health Topic: Diesel Exhaust
- Diesel Particulate Matter, a case study at www.defendingscience.org
- Clean School Bus USA, EPA Initiative
- Weight of the Evidence or Wait for the Evidence? Protecting Underground Miners from Diesel Particulate Matter Article by Celeste Monforton. American Journal of Public Health, February 2006.
- Diesel exhaust – peer-reviewed studies by Health Effects Institute
- Safety and Health Topics: Diesel Exhaust, U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration
- Safety and Health Topics: Diesel Exhaust - Partial List of Chemicals Associated with Diesel Exhaust, U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration
- Diesel Exhaust Particulates: Reasonably Anticipated to Be A Human Carcinogen
- Impact of Fuel Metal Impurities on the Durability of a Light-Duty Diesel Aftertreatment System National Renewable Energy Laboratory
- Acute Inflammatory Responses in the Airways and Peripheral Blood After Short-Term Exposure to Diesel Exhaust in Healthy Human Volunteers, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
- Diesel exhaust: what you need to know
- Health Effects of Diesel Exhaust Archived 2019-12-09 at the Wayback Machine - fact sheet by Cal/EPA and American Lung Association