Tarsier
Tarsiers Ma Middle Eocene to Recent
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Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Primates |
Suborder: | Haplorhini |
Infraorder: | Tarsiiformes |
Family: | Tarsiidae Gray, 1825 |
Type genus | |
Tarsius Storr, 1780
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Genera | |
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Tarsiers (/ˈtɑːrsiərz/ TAR-see-ərz) are haplorhine primates of the family Tarsiidae, which is, itself, the lone extant family within the infraorder Tarsiiformes. Although the group was, prehistorically, more globally widespread, all of the species living today are restricted to Maritime Southeast Asia, predominantly being found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.[3]
They are found primarily in forested habitats, especially forests that have liana, since the vine gives tarsiers vertical support when climbing trees.[4]
Evolutionary history
Fossil record
Fossils of
Within the family Tarsiidae, there are two extinct genera—
So far, four fossil species of tarsiers are known from the fossil record:
- Hesperotarsius thailandicus lived during the Early Miocene in northwestern Thailand.[5][9]
- Hesperotarsius sindhensis lived during the Miocene in Pakistan.[10]
- Tarsius sirindhornae lived during the Middle Miocene in northern Thailand.[7]
The genus Tarsius has a longer fossil record than any other primate genus, but the assignment of the Eocene and Miocene fossils to the genus is dubious.[11]
Classification
The
At a lower phylogenetic level, the tarsiers have, until recently, all been placed in the genus Tarsius,
In 2010,
In 2014, scientists published the results of a genetic study from across the range of the Philippine tarsier, revealing previously unrecognised genetic diversity. Three subspecies are recognised in the established taxonomy: Carlito syrichta syrichta from Leyte and Samar, C. syrichta fraterculus from Bohol, and C. syrichta carbonarius from Mindanao. Their analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences suggested that ssp. syrichta and fraterculus may represent a single lineage, whereas ssp. carbonarius may represent two lineages – one occupies the majority of Mindanao while the other is in northeastern Mindanao and the nearby Dinagat Island, which the authors termed the 'Dinagat-Caraga tarsier'. More detailed studies that integrate morphological data will be needed to review the taxonomy of tarsiers in the Philippines.[14]
- Infraorder Tarsiiformes
- Family Tarsiidae: tarsiers
- Genus Carlito
- Philippine tarsier, Carlito syrichta
- C. s. syrichta
- C. s. fraterculus (to be combined into C. s. syrichta?)
- C. s. carbonarius
- Philippine tarsier, Carlito syrichta
- Genus Cephalopachus
- Horsfield's tarsier, Cephalopachus bancanus
- C. b. bancanus
- C. b. natunensis
- C. b. boreanus
- C. b. saltator
- Horsfield's tarsier, Cephalopachus bancanus
- Genus Tarsius
- Dian's tarsier, T. dentatus
- Makassar tarsier T. fuscus
- Lariang tarsier, T. lariang
- Niemitz's tarsier, T. niemitzi
- Peleng tarsier, T. pelengensis
- Sangihe tarsier, T. sangirensis
- Gursky's spectral tarsier, T. spectrumgurskyae[15]
- Jatna's tarsier, T. supriatnai[15]
- Spectral tarsier, T. tarsier
- Siau Island tarsier, T. tumpara
- Pygmy tarsier, T. pumilus
- Wallace's tarsier, T. wallacei
- Genus
- Family Tarsiidae: tarsiers
Anatomy and physiology
Tarsiers are small animals with enormous eyes; each eyeball is approximately 16 millimetres (0.63 in) in diameter and is as large as, or in some cases larger than, its entire brain.[16][17] The unique cranial anatomy of the tarsier results from the need to balance their large eyes and heavy head so they are able to wait silently for nutritious prey.[18] Tarsiers have a strong auditory sense, and their auditory cortex is distinct.[18] Tarsiers also have long hind limbs, owing mostly to the elongated tarsus bones of the feet, from which the animals get their name. The combination of their elongated tarsi and fused tibiofibulae makes them morphologically specialized for vertical clinging and leaping.[19] The head and body range from 10 to 15 cm in length, but the hind limbs are about twice this long (including the feet), and they also have a slender tail from 20 to 25 cm long. Their fingers are also elongated, with the third finger being about the same length as the upper arm. Most of the digits have nails, but the second and third toes of the hind feet bear claws instead, which are used for grooming. Tarsiers have soft, velvety fur, which is generally buff, beige, or ochre in color.[20]
Tarsiers morphology allows for them to move their heads 180 degrees in either direction, allowing for them to see 360 degrees around them.[21] Their dental formula is also unique: 2.1.3.31.1.3.3[22] Unlike many nocturnal vertebrates, tarsiers lack a light-reflecting layer (tapetum lucidum) of the retina and have a fovea.
The tarsier's brain is different from that of other primates in terms of the arrangement of the connections between the two eyes and the
Philippine tarsiers are capable of hearing frequencies as high as 91 kHz. They are also capable of vocalizations with a dominant frequency of 70 kHz.[25]
Behavior
Pygmy tarsiers differ from other species in terms of their morphology, communication, and behavior.[26] The differences in morphology that distinguish pygmy tarsiers from other species are likely based on their high altitude environment.[27]
All tarsier species are
Ecological variation is responsible for differences in morphology and behavior in tarsiers because different species become adapted to local conditions based on the level of altitude.[32] For example, the colder climate at higher elevations can influence cranial morphology.[33]
Tarsiers tend to be extremely shy animals and are sensitive to bright lights, loud noises, and physical contact. They have been reported to behave suicidally when stressed or kept in captivity.[34][35]
Predators
Due to their small size, tarsiers are prey to various other animals. Tarsiers primarily inhabit the lower vegetation layers as they face threats from both terrestrial predators such as cats, lizards, and snakes, and aerial predators such as owls and birds. By residing in these lower layers, they can minimize their chances of being preyed upon by staying off the ground and yet still low enough to avoid birds of prey.
Tarsiers, though known as being shy and reclusive, are known to mob predators. In nature, mobbing is the act of harassing predators to reduce the chance of being attacked. When predators are near, tarsiers will make a warning vocalization. Other tarsiers will respond to the call, and within a short period of time, 2-10 tarsiers will show up to mob the predator. The majority of the group consists of adult males, but there will occasionally be a female or two. While tarsier groups only contain one adult male, males from other territories will join in the mob event, meaning there are multiple alpha male tarsiers attacking the predator.[36][21][37]
Diet
Tarsiers are the only entirely
Reproduction
Gestation takes about six months,[41] and tarsiers give birth to single offspring. Young tarsiers are born furred, and with open eyes, and are able to climb within a day of birth. They reach sexual maturity by the end of their second year. Sociality and mating system varies, with tarsiers from Sulawesi living in small family groups, while Philippine and western tarsiers are reported to sleep and forage alone.
Conservation
Tarsiers have never formed successful breeding colonies in captivity. This may be due in part to their special feeding requirements.[42][43][44][45][46]
A sanctuary near the town of Corella, on the Philippine island of Bohol, is having some success restoring tarsier populations.[47] The Philippines Tarsier Foundation (PTFI) has developed a large, semi-wild enclosure known as the Tarsier Research and Development Center. Carlito Pizarras, also known as the "Tarsier man", founded this sanctuary where visitors can observe tarsiers in the wild. As of 2011, the sanctuary was maintained by him and his brother.[citation needed] The trees in the sanctuary are populated with nocturnal insects that make up the tarsier's diet.[48]
The conservation status of all tarsiers is vulnerable to extinction. Tarsiers are a conservation dependent species meaning that they need to have more and improved management of protected habitats or they will definitely become extinct in the future.[18]
The first quantitative study on the activity patterns of captive Philippine Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) has been studied at the Subayon Conservation Centre for the Philippine Tarsier in Bilar, Bohol, Philippines. From December 2014 to January 2016, Female and male T. syrichta were observed based on their time apportioned to normal activities during non-mating versus mating season. During the non-mating season, a significant amount of their waking hours were spent scanning which proceeded to resting, foraging, and traveling. Feeding, scent-marking, self-grooming, social activities, and other activities were minimal. Scanning was still a common activity among the paired sexes during mating season. However, resting remarkedly decreased while increases in travel and foraging were evident. These findings are being considered for the continuance of housing T.syrichta with successes with captivity due to anthropogenic threats.[49]
The 2008-described Siau Island tarsier in Indonesia is regarded as Critically Endangered and was listed among The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates by Conservation International and the IUCN/SCC Primate Specialist Group in 2008.[50] The Malaysian government protects tarsiers by listing them in the Totally Protected Animals of Sarawak, the Malaysian state in Borneo where they are commonly found.[51]
A new scheme to conserve the tarsiers of Mount Matutum near Tupi in South Cotabato on the island of Mindanao is being organised by the Tupi civil government and the charity Endangered Species International (ESI). Tarsier UK are also involved on the margins helping the Tupi Government to educate the children of Tupi about the importance of the animal. ESI is hoping to build a visitor centre on the slopes of Mount Matutum and help the local indigenous peoples to farm more environmentally and look after the tarsiers. The first stage in this is educating the local peoples on the importance of keeping the animal safe and secure. A number of native tarsier-friendly trees have been replanted on land which had been cleared previously for fruit tree and coconut tree planting.[citation needed]
References
- ^ OCLC 62265494.
- ^ S2CID 21220811.
- ^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Tarsier.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 14 Apr. 2019, http://www.britannica.com/animal/tarsier.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-66315-1.
- ISBN 0-231-11013-8
- ^ PMID 21123264.)
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- PMID 3113259. Archived from the originalon 2012-06-28. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
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- ^ a b Shekelle, Myron; Groves, Colin P; Maryanto, Ibnu; Mittermeier, Russell A (May 2017). "Two New Tarsier Species (Tarsiidae, Primates) and the Biogeography of Sulawesi, Indonesia". Primate Conservation. 31 (1): 1–9.
- ISBN 978-0-393-91291-3.
- ISBN 978-1-58834-151-8.
- ^ S2CID 326565.
- PMID 9843978.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87196-871-5.
- ^ a b c Gron KJ. 2010 December 1. Primate Factsheets: Tarsier (Tarsius) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology . http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/tarsier . Accessed 2019 November 12.
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- PMID 8872317.
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- ^ Musser, G. G.; Dagosto, M. (1987). "The identity of Tarsius pumilus, a pygmy species endemic to the montane mossy forests of Central Sulawesi". American Museum Novitates (2867): 1–53.
- S2CID 41499839.
- ^ Niemitz, C (1977). "Zur funktionsmorphologie und biometrie der gattung Tarsius, Storr, 1780". Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg. 25: 1–161.
- ^ Niemitz, C. (1979). Relationships among anatomy, ecology, and behavior: A model developed in the genus Tarsius, with thoughts about phylogenetic mechanisms and adaptive interactions. In S. 1190 N. Grow, S. Gursky-DoyenMorbeck, H. Preuschoft, & N. Gomberg (Eds.), Environment, behavior, and morphology: Dynamic interactions (pp. 119–138). New York: Gustav Fischer.
- ^ Niemitz, C. (1984). An investigation and review of the territorial behaviour and social organization of the genus Tarsius. In C. Niemitz (Ed.), Biology of tarsiers (pp. 117–128). New York: Gustav Fischer
- PMID 17988759.
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- ^ Jarosz, Andy (2019-05-20). "The Philippines: The Tarsier Man". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2019-05-21. Retrieved 2019-09-28.
- ^ Sinclair, Joe (2011-12-12). "Tourism threatens tiny Philippine primate". My SinChew. AFP. Archived from the original on 2019-09-28. Retrieved 2019-09-28.
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- S2CID 21188050– via EBSCOhost.
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- doi:10.1002/zoo.1430120207. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-03-12. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
- ISBN 978-979-799-263-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 July 2011.)
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help - ISBN 978-979-799-263-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011.)
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help - ISBN 978-979-799-263-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 July 2011.)
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help - ISBN 978-0-8135-3236-3.
- ^ "StephenMBland". Retrieved 18 October 2016.
- .
- S2CID 73491766.
- ^ Shekelle, Myron; Salim, Agus. "Siau Island Tarsier". IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group. Archived from the original on 6 September 2010. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- ^ "Totally Protected Animals of Sarawak". Forestry Department of Sarawak. Retrieved 1 January 2010.[permanent dead link]
External links
- Tarsier.org Archived 2022-01-16 at the Wayback Machine, an international research and conservation project
- Tarsiers (Tarsiidae) at the Wayback Machine (archived October 15, 2004), Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents, 2000
- Gron, Kurt J. (July 2008). "Primate Factsheets: Tarsier (Tarsius) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology". National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison.
- Tarsiers – Visiting the two Tarsier sanctuaries in Bohol, Philippines
- Tarsier skeleton – Skeleton from the University of Texas at Austin