Architecture of Scotland

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Catalan architect Enric Miralles
and opened in October 2004.

The architecture of Scotland includes all human building within the modern borders of Scotland, from the

hill forts from the Iron Age. The arrival of the Romans from about 71 AD led to the creation of forts like that at Trimontium, and a continuous fortification between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde known as the Antonine Wall, built in the second century AD. Beyond Roman influence, there is evidence of wheelhouses and underground souterrains. After the departure of the Romans there were a series of nucleated hill forts, often utilising major geographical features, as at Dunadd and Dunbarton
.

Castles arrived in Scotland with the introduction of

Scots Baronial style. From about 1560, the Reformation
led to the widespread destruction of church furnishings, ornaments and decoration and in post-Reformation period a unique form of church emerged based on the T-shaped plan.

After the

Alexander "Greek" Thomson and David Rhind. The late nineteenth century saw some major engineering projects including the Forth Bridge, a cantilever bridge
and one of the first major all steel constructions in the world.

The most significant Scottish architect of the early twentieth century,

Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre, Glasgow, the many striking modern buildings along the side of the River Clyde and the Scottish Parliament Building
in Edinburgh.

Prehistoric era

Skara Brae, a Neolithic settlement, located in the Bay of Skaill, Orkney.

Groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on what is now Scottish soil around 9500 years ago, and the first villages around 6000 years ago. The stone building at

hillforts in Scotland, most located below the Clyde-Forth line.[5] They appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period, but some seem to have been reoccupied after their departure.[6] Most are circular, with a single palisade around an enclosure.[5]

Roman and post-Roman constructions

The course of the Antonine Wall, at Bar Hill

The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 AD. In the summer of AD 78

fort at Trimontium near Melrose. He is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the "River Taus" (usually assumed to be the River Tay) and established forts there, including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil. Agricola's successors were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge were abandoned within the space of a few years.[7] By AD 87 the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands and by the end of the first century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth.[8] Elginhaugh fort, in Midlothian, dates to about this period as may Castle Greg in West Lothian. The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England, building the fortification known as Hadrian's Wall from coast to coast. Around 141 A.D. the Romans undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland, moving up to construct a new limes between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. The Antonine Wall is the largest Roman construction inside Scotland. It is a sward-covered wall made of turf circa 7 metres (20 ft) high, with nineteen forts. It extended for 60 km (37 mi). Having taken twelve years to build, the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after AD 160.[9][10] The Romans retreated to the line of Hadrian's Wall, with occasional expeditions that involved the building and reoccupation of forts, until their departure in the fifth century.[11]

Beyond the area of Roman occupation, wheelhouses, a round house with a characteristic outer wall within which a circle of stone piers (bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel)[12] were constructed, with over sixty sites identified in the west and north.[13] Over 400 souterrains, small underground constructions, have been discovered in Scotland, many of them in the south-east, and although few have been dated those that have suggest a construction date in the 2nd or 3rd centuries AD. They are usually found close to settlements (whose timber frames are much less well-preserved) and may have been for storing perishable agricultural products.[14] After the departure of the Romans we have evidence of a series of forts, often smaller "nucleated" constructions compared with Iron Age constructions,[15] sometimes utilising major geographical features, as at Dunadd and Dumbarton.[16]

Middle Ages

The front of Glasgow Cathedral, considered one of the finest Gothic buildings in Scotland.

Medieval vernacular architecture made use of local materials and styles. As in England, cruck construction was used, employing pairs of curved timbers to support the roof, however they were usually hidden from view. In rural areas there was extensive use of turf to fill in the walls, sometimes on a stone base, but they were not long lasting and had to be rebuilt perhaps as often as every two or three years. In some regions, including the south-west and around Dundee, solid clay walls were used, or combinations of clay, turf and stray, rendered with clay or lime to make them weatherproof.[17] With a lack of long span structural timber, the most common building material was stone, employed in both mortared and dry stone construction. Different regions used broom, heather, straw, turfs or reeds for roofing.[18]

The introduction of Christianity into Scotland from Ireland, from the sixth century, led to the construction of basic masonry-built churches beginning on the west coast and islands.

St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh.[23]

Dunstaffnage Castle, one of the oldest surviving "castles of enceinte", mostly dating from the thirteenth century

Scotland is known for its dramatically placed castles, many of which date from the late medieval era. Castles, in the sense of a fortified residence of a lord or noble, arrived in Scotland as part of David I's encouragement of Norman and French nobles to settle with feudal tenures, particularly in the south and east, and were a way of controlling the contested lowlands.

harled for weatherproofing and a uniform appearance.[29] In addition to the baronial castles there were royal castles, often larger and providing defence, lodging for the itinerant Scottish court and a local administrative centre. By 1200 these included fortifications at Ayr and Berwick.[30] In the wars of Scottish Independence Robert I adopted a policy of castle destruction, rather than allow fortresses to be easily retaken and then held by the English, beginning with his own castles at Ayr and Dumfries,[31] and including Roxburgh and Edinburgh.[32]

Smailholm Tower near Kelso in the Scottish Borders

After the Wars of Independence, new castles began to be built, often on a grander scale as "

livery and maintenance" castles, to house retained troops, like Tantallon, Lothian and Doune near Stirling, rebuilt for Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany in the fourteenth century.[27] The largest number of late medieval fortifications in Scotland built by nobles, about 800,[33] were of the tower house design.[34][35] Smaller versions of tower houses in southern Scotland were known as peel towers, or pele houses.[36] The defences of tower houses were primarily aimed to provide protection against smaller raiding parties and were not intended to put up significant opposition to an organised military assault, leading historian Stuart Reid to characterise them as "defensible rather than defensive".[37] They were typically a tall, square, stone-built, crenelated building; often also surrounded by a barmkin or bawn, a walled courtyard designed to hold valuable animals securely, but not necessarily intended for serious defence.[38][39] They were built extensively on both sides of the border with England and James IV's forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in 1494 led to an immediate burst of castle building across the region.[40][41] Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture, with existing castles being adapted to allow the use of gunpowder weapons by the incorporation of "keyhole" gun ports, platforms to mount guns and walls being adapted to resist bombardment. Ravenscraig, Kirkcaldy, begun about 1460, is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an Artillery fort, incorporating "D-shape" bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted.[42]

Early modern

Renaissance

Linlithgow Palace, the first building to bear that title in Scotland, extensively rebuilt along Renaissance principles from the fifteenth century

The impact of the Renaissance on Scottish architecture has been seen as occurring in two distinct phases. First, from the early fifteenth century the selective use of

Trinity College, Edinburgh, showed a combination of Gothic and Renaissance styles.[44]

The extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces probably began under

Henry VIII and adopted forms that were recognisably European, beginning with the extensive work at Linlithgow.[47] This was followed by re-buildings at Holyrood, Falkland, Stirling and Edinburgh,[48] described as "some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain".[49] Rather than slavishly copying continental forms, most Scottish architecture incorporated elements of these styles into traditional local patterns,[48] adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials (particularly stone and harl).[50] New military architecture in the trace Italienne style was brought by Italian military engineers during the war of the Rough Wooing and the regency of Mary of Guise including Migliorino Ubaldini who worked at Edinburgh Castle, Camillo Marini who designed forts, and Lorenzo Pomarelli who worked for Mary of Guise during the rebuilding of forts at Inchkeith and Eyemouth.[51] Work undertaken for James VI demonstrated continued Renaissance influences, with the Chapel Royal at Stirling having a classical entrance built in 1594 and the North Wing of Linlithgow, built in 1618, using classical pediments. Similar themes can be seen in the private houses of aristocrats, as in Mar's Wark, Stirling (c. 1570) and Crichton Castle, built for the Earl of Bothwell in 1580s.[52]

Reformation

Burntisland Parish Kirk

From about 1560, the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland. Calvinists rejected ornamentation in places of worship, with no need for elaborate buildings divided up by ritual, resulting in the widespread destruction of Medieval church furnishings, ornaments and decoration.

Greek cross plan was used for churches such as Cawdor (1619) and Fenwick (1643). In most of these cases one arm of the cross would have been closed off as a laird's aisle, meaning that they were in effect T-plan churches.[54]

Heriot's Hospital
, Edinburgh, showing many of the key features of the Scots baronial style.

The unique style of great private house in Scotland, later known as

Moray House, Edinburgh (1628) and Drumlanrig Castle (1675–89), and was highly influential until the baronial style gave way to the grander English forms associated with Inigo Jones in the later seventeenth century.[56]

Restoration

Kinross House, one of the first Palladian houses in Britain

During the turbulent era of

Sir William Bruce (1630–1710), considered "the effective founder of classical architecture in Scotland", was the key figure in introducing the Palladian style into Scotland, following the principles of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–80). Palladio's ideas were strongly based on the symmetry, perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans, and associated in England with the designs of Inigo Jones. Bruce popularised a style of country house amongst the nobility that encouraging the move towards a more continental, leisure-oriented architecture.[58] He built and remodelled country houses, including Thirlestane Castle and Prestonfield House.[59] Among his most significant work was his own Palladian mansion at Kinross, built on the Loch Leven estate which he had purchased in 1675.[59] As the Surveyor and Overseer of the Royal Works he undertook the rebuilding of the Royal Palace of Holyroodhouse in the 1670s, which gave the palace its present appearance.[58] After the death of Charles II, Bruce lost political favour, and later, following the Glorious Revolution, he was imprisoned more than once as a suspected Jacobite.[60] These houses were predominantly built using well-cut ashlar masonry on the façades, while rubble stonework was used only for internal walls.[61]

Het Loo in the Netherlands.[62]

Industrial revolution

Eighteenth century

Plan for the New Town, Edinburgh by James Craig (1768)

After the

Act of Union
, growing prosperity in Scotland led to a spate of new building, both public and private. The threat of Jacobite insurrection or invasion meant that Scotland also saw more military building than England in this period, relying on the strength of inclined and angled engineered masonry work combined with the ability of earthen toppings that could deflect and absorb artillery fire. This culminated in the construction of
gridiron plan, building forms and the architectural detailing would be copied by many smaller towns, although rendered in locally quarried materials.[66] Despite this building boom, the centralisation of much of the government administration, including the king's works, in London, meant that a number of Scottish architects spent most of all of their careers in England, where they had a major impact on Georgian architecture.[67]

Rear view of a nineteenth-century Scottish tenement, Edinburgh

Colen Campbell was influenced by the Palladian style and has been credited with founding Georgian architecture. Architectural historian Howard Colvin has speculated that he was associated with James Smith and that Campbell may even have been his pupil.[58] He spent most of his career in Italy and England and developed a rivalry with fellow Scot James Gibbs. Gibbs trained in Rome and also practised mainly in England. His architectural style did incorporate Palladian elements, as well as forms from Italian baroque and Inigo Jones, but was most strongly influenced by the interpretation of the Baroque by Sir Christopher Wren.[68]

George III, and in 1766, with Robert Adam, as Architect to the King.[75] More international in outlook than Adam, he combined Neoclassicism and Palladian conventions and his influence was mediated through his large number of pupils.[76]

Nineteenth century

Urban growth and planning

New Lanark, cotton mills and housing for workers on the banks of the River Clyde, founded in 1786 and developed by Robert Owen from 1800

Vernacular architecture of this period continued to depend on local materials and styles,[18] increasing making use of locally mined stone. While Edinburgh made extensive use of yellow sandstone, the commercial centre and tenements of Glasgow were built in distinctive red sandstone.[63] After a major fire in the largely wooden Aberdeen in the 1740s, the city fathers decreed that major buildings should be in the locally abundant granite, beginning a new phase in large scale mining and leading to the "granite city", as a port, becoming a centre of a major industry in the nineteenth century, which supplied Scotland and England with faced stone, pavement slabs and pillars.[77]

Often built by groups of friends and family, the homes of the poor were usually of very simple construction. Contemporaries noted that cottages in the Highlands and Islands tended to be cruder, with single rooms, slit windows and earthen floors, often shared by a large family. In contrast many Lowland cottages had distinct rooms and chambers, were clad with plaster or paint and even had glazed windows. Urban settings also included traditional thatched houses, beside the larger, stone and slate roofed town houses of merchants and urban gentry.[18] The Industrial Revolution transformed the scale of Scottish towns, making Glasgow the "second city of the Empire".[78] The other side of growing wealth and planned architecture for the aristocracy and middle classes was the growth of urban sprawl, exemplified by sub-urban tenements like those of the Gorbals in Glasgow, where overcrowding, lack of sanitation and general poverty contributed to disease, crime, and very low life expediency.[79]

The sometimes

gridiron plan, in favour of "conservative surgery": retaining the best buildings in an area and removing the worst. He put this into practice, purchasing and improving slum tenements in James Court, and in new developments at Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh.[82]

Gothic Revival

Scots Baronial
revival

The Gothic Revival in architecture has been seen as an expression of

Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton House in East Lothian, but it is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle, Ayrshire, remodelled by Adam from 1777.[84]

Important for the adoption of the style in the early nineteenth century was

Robert Stodart Lorimer (1864–1929) and in urban contexts, including the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh (from the 1850s) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling (1859–69).[86] The rebuilding of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace and its adoption as a royal retreat from 1855 to 1858 confirmed the popularity of the style.[87]

In ecclesiastical architecture, a style with more in common to that in England was adopted. Important figures included

Neoclassicism

Alexander Thomson's Caledonia Road Church, Glasgow

Neoclassicism continued to be a major style into the nineteenth century.

Alexander "Greek" Thomson (1817–75). Working mainly in Glasgow, he turned away from the Gothic style toward that of the ancient Greeks and Egyptians, as can be seen in the temple and columns that were part of the Caledonia Road Church (1856).[88]

David Rhind (1808–83) employed both neoclassical and Baronial styles and his work included many branches of the Commercial Bank of Scotland, including their headquarters in Edinburgh.[90] He also designed a number of churches, local government buildings, and houses. One of his grandest schemes was Daniel Stewart's Hospital, now Stewart's Melville College, Edinburgh. In 1849, he was commissioned to design the lay-out of the Pollokshields area of Glasgow, in what until then had been farmland 2 miles (3.2 km) south of the city centre.[91] Rhind formed a partnership with Robert Hamilton Paterson (1843–1911) who executed major works for brewers, malters and warehouse-men (for which Edinburgh was a centre), including design of the Abbey, James Calder & Co., Castle, Holyrood, Drybrough's, Caledonian and Clydesdale Breweries; and also work for McVitie and Price.[92] The partnership was to execute important projects such as the Queen Victoria Memorial at Liverpool[93] and the Royal Scots War Memorial in St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh.[94]

New engineering

The nineteenth century saw some major engineering projects including

Tay Bridge.[96] The project was taken over by John Fowler and Benjamin Baker, who designed a structure that was built by Glasgow-based company Sir William Arrol & Co. from 1883. It was opened on 4 March 1890, and spans a total length of 2,528.7 metres (8,296 ft). It was the first major structure in Britain to be constructed of steel;[97] its contemporary, the Eiffel Tower was built of wrought iron.[98]

Twentieth century to the present

The Glasgow School of Art, often considered the greatest design of Charles Rennie Mackintosh

The most significant Scottish architect of the early twentieth century, having a considerable influence on European architecture, was

James Salmon (1873–1924), whose designs included the heavily glass-fronted, Art Nouveau "Hatrack" (1899–1902) on Vincent Street and the Lion Chambers, Hope Street (1904–05), an early example of reinforced concrete construction.[100]

In the 20th century the distinctive Scottish use of stone architecture declined as it was replaced by cheaper alternatives such as

Edwardian Baroque architecture. Rhind's libraries were all built with locally quarried sandstone, which blended in with the existing tenement neighbourhoods. His landmark buildings were greatly enhanced by his liberal use of columns, domes and sculpted features.[103] James Miller (1860–1947) is noted for his Scottish railway stations, such as his 1901–05 extensions to Glasgow Central railway station,[104] and the spectacular Wemyss Bay railway station on the Firth of Clyde.[105]

Red Road Flats
, Glasgow

After the First World War, Miller and his chief designer Richard Gunn (1889–1933) along with others, adapted to the growing needs of the office block. In Glasgow, with its central gridiron plan, this followed the practice in the United States of filling up entire blocks and building steel framed buildings as high as the fire marshal would allow, as in the heavily American-influenced

During World War I the government became increasingly aware of Scotland's housing problems, particularly after the Glasgow rent strike of 1915. A royal commission of 1917 reported on the "unspeakably filthy privy-

middens in many of the mining areas, badly constructed incurably damp labourers' cottages on farms, whole townships unfit for human occupation in the crofting counties and islands ... groups of lightless and unventilated houses in the older burghs, clotted masses of slums in the great cities".[107] The result was a massive programme of council house building. Many early council houses were built on greenfield sites away from the pollution of the city, often constructed of semi-detached homes or terraced cottages. Knightswood, north-west of Glasgow, was built as a show piece from 1923 to 1929, with a library, social centre and seven shopping "parades". In the 1930s schemes tended to be more cheaply built, like Blackhill, Glasgow, with a thousand houses built as two and three-story tenements. These building schemes were designed to rehouse those displaced by urban slum clearance, by which thousands of tenements were demolished. However, often crammed into poor land near railways or gasworks, they soon became notorious. A survey of 1936 found that almost half of Scotland's houses were still inadequate.[107]

The revitalised Merchant City, Glasgow

In the post-war period Scotland continued to produce important architects, including

Red Road Flats originally offered hope of a new beginning and an escape from the overcrowded nineteenth-century tenements of the city, but lacked a sufficient infrastructure and soon deteriorated. Robert Matthew (1906–75) and Basil Spence (1907–76) were responsible for redeveloping the Gorbals in Glasgow, for demolitions at the University of Edinburgh and the stark rebuilding typified by the David Hume Tower (1960–63, now named 40 George Square).[102] Another solution adopted in Scotland was the building of new towns like Glenrothes (1948) and Cumbernauld (1956), designed to take excess population from the cities.[79] Cumbernauld was praised for its architecture when first built, but the uncompleted centre and the layout of the town in general, were receiving heavy criticism by the twenty-first century: its modernist architecture described by one resident as "the lego fantasy of an unhappy child".[110]

From the 1980s Scottish architecture began to recover its reputation with works such as the building to house the

Norman Foster (1935–) and known for its segmented, curving roof as "the Armadillo",[112] and the many striking modern buildings along the side of the River Clyde,[111] including the Glasgow Science Centre, IMAX Cinema and Glasgow Tower (2001), which is the highest in Scotland.[113] The most important building of the early twenty-first century is the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh, designed by Enric Miralles (1955–2000) and opened in 2004, with a design that recalls upturned fishing boats.[114] There have been increasing attempts to preserve much of what survives from Scotland's architectural heritage, including the great buildings and monuments, but also the classically influenced houses of towns like Edinburgh and Glasgow[63] and the surviving tenements, many of which have been renovated, restored to their original pink and honeyed sandstone from the black fronts created by pollution[115] and brought up to modern standards of accommodation.[64] Urban regeneration has also been attempted in areas of post-industrial decline, like the Merchant City in Glasgow, which was returned to housing from the 1980s, with warehouse loft conversions[116] and more recently the waterfront in Edinburgh, resulting in a return of populations to major urban centres.[117]

List of Scottish architects and master masons

in eastern Scotland.
Glasgow Tower, Scotland's tallest tower, and the IMAX Cinema at the Glasgow Science Centre.

See also

References

Notes

  1. , p. 19.
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  14. , pp. 77–110.
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Bibliography

External links