History of Scotland

People lived in Scotland for at least 8,500 years before Britain's recorded history. At times during the last interglacial period (130,000–70,000 BC) Europe had a climate warmer than today's, and early humans may have made their way to Scotland, with the possible discovery of pre-Ice Age axes on Orkney and mainland Scotland.^[5] Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around 9600 BC.^[6] Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated an encampment near Biggar to around 12000 BC.^[7][8] Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers.^[9] The oldest house for which there is evidence in Britain is the oval structure of wooden posts found at South Queensferry near the Firth of Forth, dating from the Mesolithic period, about 8240 BC.^[10] The earliest stone structures are probably the three hearths found at Jura, dated to about 6000 BC.^[11]

Of the surviving pre-Roman accounts of Scotland, the first written reference to Scotland was the

The

comes Theodosius, however, Roman military government was withdrawn from the island altogether by the early 5th century, resulting in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain and the immigration of the Saxons to southeastern Scotland and the rest of eastern Great Britain.^[43]

By the close of the Roman occupation of southern and central Britain in the 5th century, the

Brythonic tribes the Romans had first encountered there occupying the southern half of the country. Roman influence on Scottish culture and history was not enduring.^[44]

Post-Roman Scotland

Main article:

Scotland in the Early Middle Ages

In the centuries after the departure of the Romans from Britain, there were four groups within the borders of what is now Scotland. In the east were the Picts, with kingdoms between the river Forth and Shetland. In the late 6th century the dominant force was the Kingdom of

Deira to the south to form Northumbria around the year 604. There were changes of dynasty, and the kingdom was divided, but it was re-united under Æthelfrith's son Oswald (r. 634–642).^[49]

Scotland was largely converted to Christianity by Irish-Scots missions associated with figures such as

calculating Easter, although most of these issues had been resolved by the mid-7th century.^[52][53]

Rise of the Kingdom of Alba

Main article: Origins of the Kingdom of Alba

Conversion to Christianity may have sped a long-term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, which adopted Gaelic language and customs. There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns, although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata, or the other way around. This culminated in the rise of

Domnall II (Donald II) was the first man to be called rí Alban (i.e. King of Alba).^[58] The term Scotia was increasingly used to describe the kingdom between North of the Forth and Clyde and eventually the entire area controlled by its kings was referred to as Scotland.^[59]

The long reign (900–942/3) of

mormaer of Moray, who became king in 1040.^[62] MacBeth ruled for seventeen years before he was overthrown by Máel Coluim, the son of Donnchad, who some months later defeated MacBeth's step-son and successor Lulach to become King Máel Coluim III (Malcolm III).^[63]

It was Máel Coluim III, who acquired the nickname "Canmore" (Cenn Mór, "Great Chief"), which he passed to his successors and who did most to create the

Edgar, the oldest of the three, became king in 1097.^[66] Shortly afterwards Edgar and the King of Norway, Magnus Barefoot concluded a treaty recognising Norwegian authority over the Western Isles. In practice Norse control of the Isles was loose, with local chiefs enjoying a high degree of independence. He was succeeded by his brother Alexander, who reigned 1107–1124.^[67]

When Alexander died in 1124, the crown passed to Margaret's fourth son

sheriffs to administer localities. He established the first royal burghs in Scotland, granting rights to particular settlements, which led to the development of the first true Scottish towns and helped facilitate economic development as did the introduction of the first recorded Scottish coinage. He continued a process begun by his mother and brothers helping to establish foundations that brought reform to Scottish monasticism based on those at Cluny and he played a part in organising diocese on lines closer to those in the rest of Western Europe.^[70]

These reforms were pursued under his successors and grandchildren

Haakon Haakonarson's ill-fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs with the Treaty of Perth in 1266.^[71]

The Wars of Independence

Main article: Wars of Scottish Independence

The death of King Alexander III in 1286, and the death of his granddaughter and heir,

Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale, the next strongest claimant, accepted this outcome with reluctance. Over the next few years Edward I used the concessions he had gained to systematically undermine both the authority of King John and the independence of Scotland.^[73] In 1295, John, on the urgings of his chief councillors, entered into an alliance with France, known as the Auld Alliance.^[74]

In 1296, Edward invaded Scotland, deposing King John. The following year

Andrew de Moray raised forces to resist the occupation and under their joint leadership an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as Guardian of the realm. Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298.^[75] Wallace escaped but probably resigned as Guardian of Scotland. In 1305, he fell into the hands of the English, who executed him for treason despite the fact that he owed no allegiance to England.^[76]

Rivals

Edward II moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and reassert control. Robert defeated that army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, securing de facto independence.^[82] In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath, a remonstrance to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland, helped convince Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and nullify the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland's sovereignty could be recognised by the major European dynasties. The Declaration has also been seen as one of the most important documents in the development of a Scottish national identity.^[83]

In 1326, what may have been the first full

Edward III signed the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton acknowledging Scottish independence under the rule of Robert the Bruce.^[86] However, four years after Robert's death in 1329, England once more invaded on the pretext of restoring Edward Balliol, son of John Balliol, to the Scottish throne, thus starting the Second War of Independence.^[86] Despite victories at Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill, in the face of tough Scottish resistance led by Sir Andrew Murray, the son of Wallace's comrade in arms, successive attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed.^[86] Edward III lost interest in the fate of his protégé after the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France.^[86] In 1341, David II, King Robert's son and heir, was able to return from temporary exile in France. Balliol finally resigned his claim to the throne to Edward in 1356, before retiring to Yorkshire, where he died in 1364.^[87]

The Stuarts

Main article: House of Stuart

After David II's death,

Black Douglas family that had come to prominence at the time of the Bruce.^[88]

In 1468, the last significant acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when

captured by England in 1482. With the death of James III in 1488 at the Battle of Sauchieburn, his successor James IV successfully ended the quasi-independent rule of the Lord of the Isles, bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time.^[88] In 1503, he married Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII of England, thus laying the foundation for the 17th-century Union of the Crowns.^[90]

Scotland advanced markedly in educational terms during the 15th century with the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413, the University of Glasgow in 1450 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495, and with the passing of the Education Act 1496, which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools.^[91] James IV's reign is often considered to have seen a flowering of Scottish culture under the influence of the European Renaissance.^[92]

In 1512, the Auld Alliance was renewed and under its terms, when the French were attacked by the English under

Battle of Flodden Field during which the King, many of his nobles, and a large number of ordinary troops were killed, commemorated by the song Flowers of the Forest. Once again Scotland's government lay in the hands of regents in the name of the infant James V.^[93]

James V finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents in 1528. He continued his father's policy of subduing the rebellious

Marie of Guise.^[94] James V's domestic and foreign policy successes were overshadowed by another disastrous campaign against England that led to defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss (1542).^[94] James died a short time later, a demise blamed by contemporaries on "a broken heart". The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: a daughter, who would become Mary, Queen of Scots.^[95]

Once again, Scotland was in the hands of a regent. Within two years, the

Earl of Arran acted officially as regent.^[96]

Guise responded by calling on French troops, who helped stiffen resistance to the English occupation. By 1550, after a change of regent in England, the English withdrew from Scotland completely.

From 1554 on, Marie de Guise took over the regency and continued to advance French interests in Scotland. French cultural influence resulted in a large influx of French vocabulary into

Roman Catholic religion and outlawed the Mass.^[97]

Meanwhile, Queen Mary had been raised as a Catholic in France, and married to the

civil war on behalf of James VI against his mother's supporters. In England, Mary became a focal point for Catholic conspirators and was eventually tried for treason and executed on the orders of her kinswoman Elizabeth I.^[101][102]

Protestant Reformation

Main article: Scottish Reformation

Calvinist

reformation in Scotland.

During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a

Zwingli-influenced George Wishart, who was burnt at the stake on the orders of Cardinal Beaton in 1546, angered Protestants. Wishart's supporters assassinated Beaton soon after and seized St. Andrews Castle, which they held for a year before they were defeated with the help of French forces. The survivors, including chaplain John Knox, were condemned to be galley slaves in France, stoking resentment of the French and creating martyrs for the Protestant cause.^[104]

Limited toleration and the influence of exiled Scots and Protestants in other countries, led to the expansion of Protestantism, with a group of lairds declaring themselves Lords of the Congregation in 1557 and representing their interests politically. The collapse of the French alliance and English intervention in 1560 meant that a relatively small, but highly influential, group of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the Scottish church. A confession of faith, rejecting papal jurisdiction and the mass, was adopted by Parliament in 1560, while the young Mary, Queen of Scots, was still in France.^[105]

Knox, having escaped the galleys and spent time in Geneva as a follower of Calvin, emerged as the most significant figure of the period. The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the medieval church. The reformed Kirk gave considerable power to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy. There were widespread, but generally orderly outbreaks of iconoclasm. At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk found it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.^[106]

Women shared in the religiosity of the day. The egalitarian and emotional aspects of Calvinism appealed to men and women alike. Historian Alasdair Raffe finds that, "Men and women were thought equally likely to be among the elect....Godly men valued the prayers and conversation of their female co-religionists, and this reciprocity made for loving marriages and close friendships between men and women." Furthermore, there was an increasingly intense relationship in the pious bonds between minister and his women parishioners. For the first time, laywomen gained numerous new religious roles and took a prominent place in prayer societies.^[107]

17th century

Main article: Union of the Crowns

In 1603,

James VI King of Scots inherited the throne of the Kingdom of England and became King James I of England, leaving Edinburgh for London and uniting England with Scotland under one monarch.^[108] The Union was a personal or dynastic union, with the Crowns remaining both distinct and separate—despite James's best efforts to create a new "imperial" throne of "Great Britain".^[109] The acquisition of the Irish crown along with the English facilitated a process of settlement by Scots in what was historically the most troublesome area of the kingdom in Ulster, with perhaps 50,000 Scots settling in the province by the mid-17th century.^[110] James adopted a different approach to impose his authority in the western Highlands and Islands. The additional military resource that was now available, particularly the English navy, resulted in the enactment of the Statutes of Iona which compelled integration of Hebridean clan leaders with the rest of Scottish society.^{[111]: 37–40} Attempts to found a Scottish colony in North America in Nova Scotia were largely unsuccessful without sufficient funds or willing colonists.^[112]

Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth

Further information: Wars of the Three Kingdoms

Bishops' Wars

Main article: Bishops' Wars

St. Giles riot initiated by Jenny Geddes

sparked off the Bishops' Wars.

Although James had tried to get the Scottish Church to accept some of the High Church Anglicanism of his southern kingdom, he met with limited success. His son and successor,

Roman Catholics in the north of the country. In England his religious policies caused similar resentment and he ruled without recourse to parliament from 1629.^[117]

Civil war

Main article: Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms

See also: English Civil War

As the civil wars developed, the English Parliamentarians appealed to the Scots Covenanters for military aid against the King. A Solemn League and Covenant was entered into, guaranteeing the Scottish Church settlement and promising further reform in England.^[118] Scottish troops played a major part in the defeat of Charles I, notably at the battle of Marston Moor. An army under the Earl of Leven occupied the North of England for some time.^[119]

However, not all Scots supported the Covenanter's taking arms against their King. In 1644, James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose attempted to raise the Highlands for the King. Few Scots would follow him, but, aided by 1,000 Irish, Highland and Islesmen troops sent by the Irish Confederates under Alasdair MacDonald (MacColla), and an instinctive genius for mobile warfare, he was stunningly successful. A Scottish Civil War began in September 1644 with his victory at battle of Tippermuir. After a series of victories over poorly trained Covenanter militias, the lowlands were at his mercy. However, at this high point, his army was reduced in size, as MacColla and the Highlanders preferred to continue the war in the north against the Campbells. Shortly after, what was left of his force was defeated at the Battle of Philiphaugh. Escaping to the north, Montrose attempted to continue the struggle with fresh troops; but in July 1646 his army was disbanded after the King surrendered to the Scots army at Newark, and the civil war came to an end.^[120]

The following year Charles, while he was being held captive in Carisbrooke Castle, entered into an agreement with moderate Scots Presbyterians. In this secret 'Engagement', the Scots promised military aid in return for the King's agreement to implement Presbyterianism in England on a three-year trial basis. The Duke of Hamilton led an invasion of England to free the King, but he was defeated by Oliver Cromwell in August 1648 at the Battle of Preston.^[121]

Cromwellian occupation and Restoration

Main articles: Scotland under the Commonwealth and Restoration (Scotland)

The

George Monck. The country was incorporated into the Puritan-governed Commonwealth and lost its independent church government, parliament and legal system, but gained access to English markets.^[122] Various attempts were made to legitimise the union, calling representatives from the Scottish burghs and shires to negotiations and to various English parliaments, where they were always under-represented and had little opportunity for dissent. However, final ratification was delayed by Cromwell's problems with his various parliaments and the union did not become the subject of an act until 1657 (see Tender of Union).^[123]

After the death of Cromwell and the regime's collapse, Charles II was restored in 1660 and Scotland again became an independent kingdom.

James, Duke of Monmouth, the King's illegitimate son, at the Battle of Bothwell Bridge.^[128] In the early 1680s a more intense phase of persecution began, later to be called "the Killing Time". When Charles died in 1685 and his brother, a Roman Catholic, succeeded him as James VII of Scotland (and II of England), matters came to a head.^[129]

The deposition of James VII

Main article: Glorious Revolution in Scotland

James put Catholics in key positions in the government and attendance at conventicles was made punishable by death. He disregarded parliament, purged the council and forced through

The closing decade of the 17th century saw the generally favourable economic conditions that had dominated since the Restoration come to an end. There was a slump in trade with the Baltic and France from 1689 to 1691, caused by French protectionism and changes in the Scottish cattle trade, followed by four years of failed harvests (1695, 1696 and 1698–1699), an era known as the "seven ill years".^[133] The result was severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north.^[134] The Parliament of Scotland of 1695 enacted proposals to help the desperate economic situation, including setting up the Bank of Scotland. The "Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies" received a charter to raise capital through public subscription.^[135]

Failure of Darien scheme

With the dream of building a lucrative overseas colony for Scotland, the Company of Scotland invested in the

Scotland was a poor rural, agricultural society with a population of 1.3 million in 1755. Although Scotland lost home rule, the Union allowed it to break free of a stultifying system and opened the way for the Scottish Enlightenment as well as a great expansion of trade and increase in opportunity and wealth. Edinburgh economist Adam Smith concluded in 1776 that "By the union with England, the middling and inferior ranks of people in Scotland gained a complete deliverance from the power of an aristocracy which had always before oppressed them."^[138] Historian Jonathan Israel holds that the Union "proved a decisive catalyst politically and economically," by allowing ambitious Scots entry on an equal basis to a rich expanding empire and its increasing trade.^[139]

Scotland's transformation into a rich leader of modern industry came suddenly and unexpectedly in the next 150 years, following its union with England in 1707 and its integration with the advanced English and imperial economies.^[140] The transformation was led by two cities that grew rapidly after 1770. Glasgow, on the river Clyde, was the base for the tobacco and sugar trade with an emerging textile industry. Edinburgh was the administrative and intellectual centre where the Scottish Enlightenment was chiefly based.^[141]

Union with England

By the start of the 18th century, a political union between Scotland and England became politically and economically attractive, promising to open up the much larger markets of England, as well as those of the growing English Empire. With economic stagnation since the late 17th century, which was particularly acute in 1704, the country depended more and more heavily on sales of cattle and linen to England, who used this to create pressure for a union.^[142][143] The Scottish parliament voted on 6 January 1707, by 110 to 69, to adopt the Treaty of Union. It was also a full economic union; indeed, most of its 25 articles dealt with economic arrangements for the new state known as "Great Britain". It added 45 Scots to the 513 members of the House of Commons and 16 Scots to the 190 members of the House of Lords, and ended the Scottish parliament. It also replaced the Scottish systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade with laws made in London. Scottish law remained separate from English law, and the religious system was not changed. England had about five times the population of Scotland at the time, and about 36 times as much wealth.^[142][144]

Jacobitism

Jacobitism was revived by the unpopularity of the union.^[145] In 1708, James Francis Edward Stuart, the son of James VII, who became known as "The Old Pretender", attempted an invasion with a French fleet carrying 6,000 men, but the Royal Navy prevented it from landing troops.^[146] A more serious attempt occurred in 1715, soon after the death of Anne and the accession of the first Hanoverian king, the eldest son of Sophie, as George I of Great Britain. This rising (known as The 'Fifteen) envisaged simultaneous uprisings in Wales, Devon, and Scotland. However, government arrests forestalled the southern ventures. In Scotland, John Erskine, Earl of Mar, nicknamed Bobbin' John, raised the Jacobite clans but proved to be an indecisive leader and an incompetent soldier. Mar captured Perth, but let a smaller government force under the Duke of Argyll hold the Stirling plain. Part of Mar's army joined up with risings in northern England and southern Scotland, and the Jacobites fought their way into England before being defeated at the Battle of Preston, surrendering on 14 November 1715. The day before, Mar had failed to defeat Argyll at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. At this point, James belatedly landed in Scotland, but was advised that the cause was hopeless. He fled back to France. An attempted Jacobite invasion with Spanish assistance in 1719 met with little support from the clans and ended in defeat at the Battle of Glen Shiel.^[147]

In 1745, the Jacobite rising known as The 'Forty-Five began.

With the advent of the Union and the demise of Jacobitism, access to London and the Empire opened up very attractive career opportunities for ambitious middle-class and upper-class Scots, who seized the chance to become entrepreneurs, intellectuals, and soldiers.^[155] Thousands of Scots, mainly Lowlanders, took up positions of power in politics, civil service, the army and navy, trade, economics, colonial enterprises and other areas across the nascent British Empire. Historian Neil Davidson notes that "after 1746 there was an entirely new level of participation by Scots in political life, particularly outside Scotland". Davidson also states that "far from being ‘peripheral’ to the British economy, Scotland – or more precisely, the Lowlands – lay at its core".^[156] British officials especially appreciated Scottish soldiers. As the Secretary of War told Parliament in 1751, "I am for having always in our army as many Scottish soldiers as possible...because they are generally more hardy and less mutinous".^[157] The national policy of aggressively recruiting Scots for senior civilian positions stirred up resentment among Englishmen, ranging from violent diatribes by John Wilkes, to vulgar jokes and obscene cartoons in the popular press,^[158] and the haughty ridicule by intellectuals such as Samuel Johnson that was much resented by Scots. In his great Dictionary Johnson defined oats as, "a grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people." To which Lord Elibank retorted, "Very true, and where will you find such men and such horses?"^[159]

Scottish politics in the late 18th century was dominated by the

The main unit of local government was the parish, and since it was also part of the church, the elders imposed public humiliation for what the locals considered immoral behaviour, including fornication, drunkenness, wife beating, cursing and Sabbath breaking. The main focus was on the poor and the landlords ("lairds") and gentry, and their servants, were not subject to the parish's control. The policing system weakened after 1800 and disappeared in most places by the 1850s.[161]

Collapse of the clan system

The clan system of the Highlands and Islands had been seen as a challenge to the rulers of Scotland from before the 17th century. James VI's various measures to exert control included the Statutes of Iona, an attempt to force clan leaders to become integrated into the rest of Scottish society. This started a slow process of change which, by the second half of the 18th century, saw clan chiefs start to think of themselves as commercial landlords, rather than as patriarchs of their people. To their tenants, initially this meant that monetary rents replaced those paid in kind. Later, rent increases became common.^{[162]: 11–17} In the 1710s the Dukes of Argyll started putting leases of some of their land up for auction; by 1737 this was done across the Argyll property. This commercial attitude replaced the principle of dùthchas, which included the obligation on clan chiefs to provide land for clan members. The shift of this attitude slowly spread through the Highland elite (but not among their tenants).^[162]: 41 As clan chiefs became more integrated into Scottish and British society, many of them built up large debts. It became easier to borrow against the security of a Highland estate from the 1770s onwards. As the lenders became predominantly people and organisations outside the Highlands, there was a greater willingness to foreclose if the borrower defaulted. Combined with an astounding level of financial incompetence among the Highland elite, this ultimately forced the sale of the estates of many Highland landed families over the period 1770–1850. (The greatest number of sales of whole estates was toward the end of this period.)^{[163]: 105–107 [162]: 1–17 [111]: 37-46, 65-73, 131-132}

The Jacobite rebellion of 1745 gave a final period of importance to the ability of Highland clans to raise bodies of fighting men at short notice. With the defeat at Culloden, any enthusiasm for continued warfare disappeared and clan leaders returned to their transition to being commercial landlords. This was arguably accelerated by some of the punitive laws enacted after the rebellion.

The clearances were followed by a period of even greater emigration from the Highlands, which continued (with a brief lull for the First World War) up to the start of the Great Depression.^[111]: 2

Enlightenment

Historian

With tariffs with England now abolished, the potential for trade for Scottish merchants was considerable. However, Scotland in 1750 was still a poor rural, agricultural society with a population of 1.3 million.^[179] Some progress was visible: agriculture in the Lowlands was steadily upgraded after 1700 and standards remained high.^[180] There were the sales of linen and cattle to England, the cash flows from military service, and the tobacco trade that was dominated by Glasgow Tobacco Lords after 1740.^[181] Merchants who profited from the American trade began investing in leather, textiles, iron, coal, sugar, rope, sailcloth, glassworks, breweries, and soapworks, setting the foundations for the city's emergence as a leading industrial centre after 1815.^[182] The tobacco trade collapsed during the American Revolution (1776–1783), when its sources were cut off by the British blockade of American ports. However, trade with the West Indies began to make up for the loss of the tobacco business,^[144] reflecting the British demand for sugar and the demand in the West Indies for herring and linen goods.^[183]

Linen was Scotland's premier industry in the 18th century and formed the basis for the later cotton, jute,^[184] and woollen industries.^[185] Scottish industrial policy was made by the board of trustees for Fisheries and Manufactures in Scotland, which sought to build an economy complementary, not competitive, with England. Since England had woollens, this meant linen. Encouraged and subsidised by the Board of Trustees so it could compete with German products, merchant entrepreneurs became dominant in all stages of linen manufacturing and built up the market share of Scottish linens, especially in the American colonial market.^[186] The British Linen Company, established in 1746, was the largest firm in the Scottish linen industry in the 18th century, exporting linen to England and America. As a joint-stock company, it had the right to raise funds through the issue of promissory notes or bonds. With its bonds functioning as bank notes, the company gradually moved into the business of lending and discounting to other linen manufacturers, and in the early 1770s banking became its main activity.^[187] It joined the established Scottish banks such as the Bank of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1695) and the Royal Bank of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1727).^[188] Glasgow would soon follow and Scotland had a flourishing financial system by the end of the century. There were over 400 branches, amounting to one office per 7,000 people, double the level in England, where banks were also more heavily regulated. Historians have emphasised that the flexibility and dynamism of the Scottish banking system contributed significantly to the rapid development of the economy in the 19th century.^[189][190]

German sociologist Max Weber mentioned Scottish Presbyterianism in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), and many scholars argued that "this worldly asceticism" of Calvinism was integral to Scotland's rapid economic modernisation.^[191] More recent scholarship however emphasises other factors. These include technology transfers from England and the appeal of a highly mobile, low-cost labour-force for English investors like Richard Arkwright.^[192] Scotland's natural resources in water power, black-band ironstone and coal were also important foundations for mechanised industry.^[193]

Religious fragmentation

In the 1690s the Presbyterian establishment purged the land of Episcopalians and heretics, and made blasphemy a capital crime. Thomas Aitkenhead, the son of an Edinburgh surgeon, aged 18, was indicted for blasphemy by order of the Privy Council for calling the New Testament "The History of the Imposter Christ"; he was hanged in 1696.^[194] Their extremism led to a reaction known as the "Moderate" cause that ultimately prevailed and opened the way for liberal thinking in the cities.

The early 18th century saw the beginnings of a fragmentation of the

Long after the triumph of the Church of Scotland in the Lowlands, Highlanders and Islanders clung to an old-fashioned Christianity infused with animistic folk beliefs and practices. The remoteness of the region and the lack of a Gaelic-speaking clergy undermined the missionary efforts of the established church. The later 18th century saw some success, owing to the efforts of the SSPCK missionaries and to the disruption of traditional society.^[198] Catholicism had been reduced to the fringes of the country, particularly the Gaelic-speaking areas of the Highlands and Islands. Conditions also grew worse for Catholics after the Jacobite rebellions and Catholicism was reduced to little more than a poorly run mission. Also important was Episcopalianism, which had retained supporters through the civil wars and changes of regime in the 17th century. Since most Episcopalians had given their support to the Jacobite rebellions in the early 18th century, they also suffered a decline in fortunes.^[196]

Literature

Although Scotland increasingly adopted the English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation.

A legacy of the Reformation in Scotland was the aim of having a school in every parish, which was underlined by an act of the Scottish parliament in 1696 (reinforced in 1801). In rural communities this obliged local landowners (heritors) to provide a schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster, while ministers and local presbyteries oversaw the quality of the education. The headmaster or "dominie" was often university educated and enjoyed high local prestige.^[203] The kirk schools were active in the rural lowlands but played a minor role in the Highlands, the islands, and in the fast-growing industrial towns and cities.^[204][205] The schools taught in English, not in Gaelic, because that language was seen as a leftover of Catholicism and was not an expression of Scottish nationalism.^[206] In cities such as Glasgow the Catholics operated their own schools, which directed their youth into clerical and middle class occupations, as well as religious vocations.^[207]

A "democratic myth" emerged in the 19th century to the effect that many a "lad of pairts" had been able to rise up through the system to take high office and that literacy was much more widespread in Scotland than in neighbouring states, particularly England.^[208] Historical research has largely undermined the myth. Kirk schools were not free, attendance was not compulsory and they generally imparted only basic literacy such as the ability to read the Bible. Poor children, starting at age 7, were done by age 8 or 9; the majority were finished by age 11 or 12. The result was widespread basic reading ability; since there was an extra fee for writing, half the people never learned to write. Scots were not significantly better educated than the English and other contemporary nations. A few talented poor boys did go to university, but usually they were helped by aristocratic or gentry sponsors. Most of them became poorly paid teachers or ministers, and none became important figures in the Scottish Enlightenment or the Industrial Revolution.^[209]

By the 18th century there were five universities in Scotland, at

Scotland's transformation into a rich leader of modern industry came suddenly and unexpectedly.^[140] The population grew steadily in the 19th century, from 1,608,000 in the census of 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901.^[210] The economy, long based on agriculture,^[140] began to industrialise after 1790. At first the leading industry, based in the west, was the spinning and weaving of cotton. In 1861, the American Civil War suddenly cut off the supplies of raw cotton and the industry never recovered. Thanks to its many entrepreneurs and engineers, and its large stock of easily mined coal, Scotland became a world centre for engineering, shipbuilding, and locomotive construction, with steel replacing iron after 1870.^[211]

Party politics

The

From about 1790 textiles became the most important industry in the west of Scotland, especially the spinning and weaving of cotton, which flourished until in 1861 the American Civil War cut off the supplies of raw cotton.^[219] The industry never recovered, but by that time Scotland had developed heavy industries based on its coal and iron resources. The invention of the hot blast for smelting iron (1828) revolutionised the Scottish iron industry. As a result, Scotland became a centre for engineering, shipbuilding and the production of locomotives. Toward the end of the 19th century, steel production largely replaced iron production.^[220] Coal mining continued to grow into the 20th century, producing the fuel to heat homes, factories and drive steam engines locomotives and steamships. By 1914, there were 1,000,000 coal miners in Scotland.^[221] The stereotype emerged early on of Scottish colliers as brutish, non-religious and socially isolated serfs;^[222] that was an exaggeration, for their life style resembled the miners everywhere, with a strong emphasis on masculinity, equalitarianism, group solidarity, and support for radical labour movements.^[223]

Britain was the world leader in the construction of railways, and their use to expand trade and coal supplies. The first successful locomotive-powered line in Scotland, between Monkland and Kirkintilloch, opened in 1831.^[224] Not only was good passenger service established by the late 1840s, but an excellent network of freight lines reduce the cost of shipping coal, and made products manufactured in Scotland competitive throughout Britain. For example, railways opened the London market to Scottish beef and milk. They enabled the Aberdeen Angus to become a cattle breed of worldwide reputation.^[225] By 1900, Scotland had 3500 miles of railway; their main economic contribution was moving supplies in and product out for heavy industry, especially coal-mining.^[226]

Scotland was already one of the most urbanised societies in Europe by 1800.

The industrial developments, while they brought work and wealth, were so rapid that housing, town-planning, and provision for public health did not keep pace with them, and for a time living conditions in some of the towns and cities were notoriously bad, with overcrowding, high infant mortality, and growing rates of tuberculosis.[231] The companies attracted rural workers, as well as immigrants from Catholic Ireland, by inexpensive company housing that was a dramatic move upward from the inner-city slums. This paternalistic policy led many owners to endorse government sponsored housing programs as well as self-help projects among the respectable working class.^[232]

Intellectual life

While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century,

In literature the most successful figure of the mid-nineteenth century was Walter Scott, who began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.^[234] It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity.^[235] In the late 19th century, a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations. Robert Louis Stevenson's work included the urban Gothic novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), and played a major part in developing the historical adventure in books like Kidnapped and Treasure Island. Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction. The "kailyard tradition" at the end of the century, brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion as can be seen in the work of figures like J. M. Barrie, most famous for his creation of Peter Pan, and George MacDonald, whose works, including Phantasies, played a major part in the creation of the fantasy genre.^[236]

Scotland also played a major part in the development of art and architecture. The

Caused by the advent of

The population of Scotland grew steadily in the 19th century, from 1,608,000 in the census of 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901.

After prolonged years of struggle, in 1834 the Evangelicals gained control of the General Assembly and passed the Veto Act, which allowed congregations to reject unwanted "intrusive" presentations to livings by patrons. The following "Ten Years' Conflict" of legal and political wrangling ended in defeat for the non-intrusionists in the civil courts. The result was a schism from the church by some of the non-intrusionists led by Dr Thomas Chalmers known as the Great Disruption of 1843. Roughly a third of the clergy, mainly from the North and Highlands, formed the separate Free Church of Scotland. The evangelical Free Churches, which were more accepting of Gaelic language and culture, grew rapidly in the Highlands and Islands, appealing much more strongly than did the established church.^[198] Chalmers's ideas shaped the breakaway group. He stressed a social vision that revived and preserved Scotland's communal traditions at a time of strain on the social fabric of the country. Chalmers's idealised small equalitarian, kirk-based, self-contained communities that recognised the individuality of their members and the need for co-operation.^[263] That vision also affected the mainstream Presbyterian churches, and by the 1870s it had been assimilated by the established Church of Scotland. Chalmers's ideals demonstrated that the church was concerned with the problems of urban society, and they represented a real attempt to overcome the social fragmentation that took place in industrial towns and cities.^[264]

In the late 19th century the major debates were between fundamentalist Calvinists and theological liberals, who rejected a literal interpretation of the Bible. This resulted in a further split in the Free Church as the rigid Calvinists broke away to form the

Industrialisation, urbanisation and the Disruption of 1843 all undermined the tradition of parish schools. From 1830 the state began to fund buildings with grants, then from 1846 it was funding schools by direct sponsorship, and in 1872 Scotland moved to a system like that in England of state-sponsored largely free schools, run by local school boards.^[265] Overall administration was in the hands of the Scotch (later Scottish) Education Department in London.^[266] Education was now compulsory from five to thirteen and many new board schools were built. Larger urban school boards established "higher grade" (secondary) schools as a cheaper alternative to the burgh schools. The Scottish Education Department introduced a Leaving Certificate Examination in 1888 to set national standards for secondary education and in 1890 school fees were abolished, creating a state-funded national system of free basic education and common examinations.^[208]

At the beginning of the 19th century, Scottish universities had no entrance exam, students typically entered at ages of 15 or 16, attended for as little as two years, chose which lectures to attend and could leave without qualifications. After two commissions of enquiry in 1826 and 1876 and reforming acts of parliament in 1858 and 1889, the curriculum and system of graduation were reformed to meet the needs of the emerging middle classes and the professions. Entrance examinations equivalent to the School Leaving Certificate were introduced and average ages of entry rose to 17 or 18. Standard patterns of graduation in the arts curriculum offered 3-year ordinary and 4-year honours degrees and separate science faculties were able to move away from the compulsory Latin, Greek and philosophy of the old MA curriculum.^[267] The historic University of Glasgow became a leader in British higher education by providing the educational needs of youth from the urban and commercial classes, as well as the upper class. It prepared students for non-commercial careers in government, the law, medicine, education, and the ministry and a smaller group for careers in science and engineering.^[268] St Andrews pioneered the admission of women to Scottish universities, creating the Lady Licentiate in Arts (LLA), which proved highly popular. From 1892 Scottish universities could admit and graduate women and the numbers of women at Scottish universities steadily increased until the early 20th century.^[269]

Early 20th century

Fishing

The years before the First World War were the golden age of the inshore fisheries. Landings reached new heights, and Scottish catches dominated Europe's herring trade,^[270] accounting for a third of the British catch. High productivity came about thanks to the transition to more productive steam-powered boats, while the rest of Europe's fishing fleets were slower because they were still powered by sails.^[271]

Political realignment

In the

Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War.[274] It especially provided manpower, ships, machinery, food (particularly fish) and money, engaging with the conflict with some enthusiasm.^[275] Scotland's industries were directed at the war effort. For example, the Singer Clydebank sewing machine factory received over 5000 government contracts, and made 303 million artillery shells, shell components, fuses, and aeroplane parts, as well as grenades, rifle parts, and 361,000 horseshoes. Its labour force of 14,000 was about 70 per cent female at war's end.^[276]

With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to the war, of whom 74,000 died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded.^[277][278] Scottish urban centres, with their poverty and unemployment, were favourite recruiting grounds of the regular British army, and Dundee, where the female-dominated jute industry limited male employment, had one of the highest proportion of reservists and serving soldiers than almost any other British city.^[279] Concern for their families' standard of living made men hesitate to enlist; voluntary enlistment rates went up after the government guaranteed a weekly stipend for life to the survivors of men who were killed or disabled.^[280] After the introduction of conscription from January 1916 every part of the country was affected. Occasionally Scottish troops made up large proportions of the active combatants, and suffered corresponding loses, as at the Battle of Loos, where there were three full Scots divisions and other Scottish units.^[279] Thus, although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population, they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead.^[281] Some areas, like the thinly populated island of Lewis and Harris, suffered some of the highest proportional losses of any part of Britain.^[279] Clydeside shipyards and the nearby engineering shops were the major centres of war industry in Scotland. In Glasgow, radical agitation led to industrial and political unrest that continued after the war ended.^[282] After the end of the war in June 1919 the German fleet interned at Scapa Flow was scuttled by its German crews, to avoid its ships being taken over by the victorious allies.^[283]

At the start of the war, the main Scottish military airfield was RAF Montrose, established a year earlier by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC). The Royal Naval Air Service established flying-boat and seaplane stations on Shetland, at East Fortune and Inchinnan, the latter two also serving as the army's airship bases and protecting Edinburgh and Glasgow, the two largest cities.^[284] The world's first aircraft carriers were based at Rosyth Dockyard in Fife, where numerous trials were undertaken of aircraft landing on them. The Beardmore W.B.III aircraft was produced by the Glasgow–based William Beardmore and Company, and was the first Royal Navy aircraft designed for flight operations on an aircraft carrier. Due to the scale and significance of Rosyth dockyard to war efforts, it was a prime target for Germany at the outbreak of World War I.^[284]

Economic boom and stagnation

A boom was created by the First World War, with the shipbuilding industry expanding by a third, but a serious depression hit the economy by 1922.^[285] The most skilled craftsmen were especially hard hit, because there were few alternative uses for their specialised skills.^[286] The main social indicators such as poor health, bad housing, and long-term mass unemployment, pointed to terminal social and economic stagnation at best, or even a downward spiral. The heavy dependence on obsolescent heavy industry and mining was a central problem, and no one offered workable solutions. The despair reflected what Finlay (1994) describes as a widespread sense of hopelessness that prepared local business and political leaders to accept a new orthodoxy of centralised government economic planning when it arrived during the Second World War.^[287]

A few industries did grow, such as chemicals and whisky, which developed a global market for premium "Scotch".^[288] However, in general the Scottish economy stagnated leading to growing unemployment and political agitation among industrial workers.^[272]

Interwar politics

After World War I the Liberal Party began to disintegrate and Labour emerged as the party of progressive politics in Scotland, gaining a solid following among working classes of the urban lowlands. As a result, the Unionists were able to gain most of the votes of the middle classes, who now feared

With all the main parties committed to the Union, new nationalist and independent political groupings began to emerge, including the National Party of Scotland in 1928 and Scottish Party in 1930. They joined to form the Scottish National Party (SNP) in 1934, with the goal of creating an independent Scotland, but it enjoyed little electoral success in the Westminster system.^[290]

Second World War (1939–1945)

As in World War I,

Scotland's airfields provided "a complex network of training and operational needs", with each airfield said to have had an "essential role" in war efforts.[296] A number of squadrons located on the Ayrshire and Fife coasts were mainly used for anti-shipping patrols.^[296] Fighter squadrons on Scotland's east coat – Wick, Dyce, Peterhead, Montrose, Leuchars, Drem, East Fortune, Kinloss and Grangemouth – were costal command bases,^{[clarification needed][296]} and used mainly to protect and defend the fleet of aircraft and equipment at both Rosyth Dockyard and Scapa Flow.^[296] East Fortune also served as a diversion airfield for Handley Page Halifax and Avro Lancaster bombers returning from bombing operations over Nazi Germany. By the end of the outbreak^{[clarification needed]} of World War II, a total of 94 military airfields were in operation across Scotland.^[296]

In World War II, Prime Minister

In World War II, despite extensive bombing by the Luftwaffe, Scottish industry came out of the depression slump by a dramatic expansion of its industrial activity, absorbing unemployed men and many women as well. The shipyards were the centre of more activity, but many smaller industries produced the machinery needed by the British bombers, tanks and warships.[292] Agriculture prospered, as did all sectors except for coal mining, which was operating mines near exhaustion. Real wages, adjusted for inflation, rose 25 per cent, and unemployment temporarily vanished. Increased income, and the more equal distribution of food, obtained through a tight rationing system, dramatically improved the health and nutrition; the average height of 13-year-olds in Glasgow increased by 2 inches (51 mm).^[299]

End of mass emigration

While emigration began to tail off in England and Wales after the First World War,^[256] it continued apace in Scotland, with 400,000 Scots, ten per cent of the population, estimated to have left the country between 1921 and 1931.^[292] The economic stagnation was only one factor; other push factors included a zest for travel and adventure, and the pull factors of better job opportunities abroad, personal networks to link into, and the basic cultural similarity of the United States, Canada, and Australia. Government subsidies for travel and relocation facilitated the decision to emigrate. Personal networks of family and friends who had gone ahead and wrote back, or sent money, prompted emigrants to retrace their paths.^[300] When the Great Depression hit in the 1930s there were no easily available jobs in the US and Canada and the numbers leaving fell to less than 50,000 a year, bringing to an end the period of mass emigrations that had opened in the mid-18th century.^[301]

Literary renaissance

In the early 20th century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by

In the 20th century, the centre of the education system became more focused on Scotland, with the ministry of education partly moving north in 1918 and then finally having its headquarters relocated to Edinburgh in 1939.

The first half of the 20th century saw Scottish universities fall behind those in England and Europe in terms of participation and investment. The decline of traditional industries between the wars undermined recruitment. English universities increased the numbers of students registered between 1924 and 1927 by 19 per cent, but in Scotland the numbers fell, particularly among women. In the same period, while expenditure in English universities rose by 90 per cent, in Scotland the increase was less than a third of that figure.[303]

Naval role

Scotland's

During the outbreak of the Cold War, Scotland's secret bunker at Anstruther were largely kept a closed and guarded secret. Initially used by the Royal Air Force (RAF) after World War II as one of a number of radar stations, it became a secret bunker to be used in the event of a nuclear attack.^[306] The bunker was 40 metres in depth and was constructed using a shell encased in three-metre solid concrete in order to deflect a nuclear attack. The facility remained in use until 1992, and was later redeveloped into a museum in 1994. The nuclear facility at Dounreay in the Highland area of Scotland was one of the 52 known nuclear targets of the Soviet Union until at least 1990.^[306]

Postwar

Overview

After World War II, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes. This only began to change in the 1970s, partly due to the discovery and development of North Sea oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service-based economy. ^{[citation needed]}

This period saw the emergence of the Scottish National Party and movements for both Scottish independence and more popularly devolution. A referendum on devolution in 1979 was unsuccessful as it did not achieve the support of 40 per cent of the electorate.^{[citation needed]} However, in 1997 Scottish voters voted in favour of establishing a Scottish Parliament which was established in 1998 and thus Scottish devolution was reformed.^[307] In 2014, the independence referendum saw vote against independence by 55% to 45% choosing to remain in the United Kingdom.^[308]

Politics and devolution

In the second half of the 20th century the Labour Party usually won most Scottish seats in the Westminster parliament, losing this dominance briefly to the Unionists in the 1950s. Support in Scotland was critical to Labour's overall electoral fortunes as without Scottish MPs it would have gained only two UK electoral victories in the 20th century (1945 and 1966).^[309] The number of Scottish seats represented by Unionists (known as Conservatives from 1965 onwards) went into steady decline from 1959 onwards, until it fell to zero in 1997.^[310] Politicians with Scottish connections continued to play a prominent part in UK political life, with Prime Ministers including the Conservatives Harold Macmillan (whose father was Scottish) from 1957 to 1963 and Alec Douglas-Home from 1963 to 1964.^[216]

The

After World War II, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes.

In the 20th century existing Christian denominations were joined by other organisations, including the

See also

• Economic history of Scotland
• History of the Outer Hebrides
• Historic Sites in Scotland
• History of the United Kingdom
• Kings of Scotland
• List of years in Scotland
• Scottish clan
• Timeline of Scottish history

References

Notes

Bibliography

Surveys and reference books

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• Keay, John
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• Lenman, Bruce P. Enlightenment and Change: Scotland 1746–1832 (2nd ed. The New History of Scotland Series. Edinburgh University Press, 2009). 280 pp. 
  ISBN 978-0-7486-2515-4
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• Magnusson, Magnus
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Culture and religion

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Prehistory and archaeology

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Early modern

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Enlightenment, 18th century

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• Daiches, David, Peter Jones and Jean Jones. A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730–1790 (1986), 170 pp; well-illustrated introduction.
• Davidson, Neil, Discovering the Scottish Revolution, 1692–1746, Pluto Press, London, England (2003).
  ISBN 0-7453-2053-8
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• Devine, T. M., Clanship to Crofters' War: the Social Transformation of the Scottish Highlands, (1994).
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• Wood, P., ed. The Scottish Enlightenment: Essays in Reinterpretation (2000).

Union and Jacobites

• Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. The Jacobite Rebellion 1745–46 (Essential Histories) (2011).
• Fry, Michael. The Union: England, Scotland and the Treaty of 1707 (2006).
• Harris, Bob (2010). "The Anglo-Scottish Treaty of Union, 1707 in 2007: Defending the Revolution, Defeating the Jacobites". Journal of British Studies. 49 (1): 28–46.
  S2CID 146771566
  .
• MacRobert, A. E. "The Myths about the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion". Historian. 2008 (99): 16–23.
• Macinnes, Allan I. "Jacobitism in Scotland: Episodic Cause or National Movement?"
  Scottish Historical Review
  , Oct 2007, Vol. 86,2 Issue 222, pp 225–252; emphasises its traditionalism.
• Macinnes, Allan I. Union and Empire: The Making of the United Kingdom in 1707 (Cambridge Studies in Early Modern British History) (2007) excerpt and text search.
• Oates, Jonathan. Jacobite Campaigns: The British State at War (Warfare, Society and Culture) (2011).
• Pittock, Murray. The Myth of the Jacobite Clans: The Jacobite Army in 1745 (2nd ed. 2009).
• Plank, Geoffrey. Rebellion and Savagery: The Jacobite Rising of 1745 and the British Empire (2005).
• Scott, P. H. 1707: The Union of Scotland and England: In Contemporary Documents (1979), primary sources.
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh
  . From Counter-Reformation to Glorious Revolution (1992) pp. 282–303 on Union.

Women

• Abrams, Lynn
  , et al. Gender in Scottish History Since 1700 (2006) excerpt and text search.
• Breitenbach, Esther, and Eleanor Gordon. Women in Scottish Society 1800–1945 (1992) online edition.
• Browne, Sarah. The women's liberation movement in Scotland (2016). online review
• Ewan, Elisabeth et al. eds. The Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Women: From the Earliest Times to 2004 (2006).
• Ewan, Elisabeth "A New Trumpet? The History of Women in Scotland 1300–1700", History Compass, March 2009, vol. 7, issue 2, pp. 431–446; a new field since the 1980s; favourite topics are work, family, religion, crime, and images of women; scholars are using women's letters, memoirs, poetry, and court records.
• McDermid, Jane (2011). "No Longer Curiously Rare but Only Just within Bounds: women in Scottish history".
  S2CID 143113878
  .

Historiography

Main article: Historiography of Scotland

• Anderson, Robert (2012). "The Development of History Teaching in the Scottish Universities, 1894–1939".
  doi:10.3366/jshs.2012.0035
  .
• Anderson, Robert (2012). "University History Teaching, National Identity and Unionism in Scotland, 1862–1914". Scottish Historical Review. 91 (1): 1–41.
  doi:10.3366/shr.2012.0070
  .
• Aspinwall, Bernard (2008). "Catholic realities and pastoral strategies: another look at the historiography of Scottish Catholicism, 1878–1920".
  S2CID 162376698
  .
• Bowie, Karin. "Cultural, British and Global Turns in the History of Early Modern Scotland," Scottish Historical Review (April 2013 Supplement), Vol. 92, pp. 38–48.
• Brown, Keith M (2013). "Early Modern Scottish History – A Survey". Scottish Historical Review. 92: 5–24.
  doi:10.3366/shr.2013.0164
  .
• Devine & Wormald (2012).
• Dingwall, Helen M. A history of Scottish medicine: themes and influences (Edinburgh UP, 2003).
• Elton, G. R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online pp 198–205
• Falconer, J. R. D. (2011). "Surveying Scotland's Urban Past: The Pre-Modern Burgh". History Compass. 9 (1): 34–44.
  doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00741.x
  .
• Kidd, C. Subverting Scotland's Past: Scottish Whig Historians and the Creation of an Anglo-British Identity 1689–1830 (Cambridge University Press, 2003)
• Linklater, Eric. "The Matter of Scotland." History Today (Jan 1951) 1#1 pp. 43–52, online
• McDermid, Jane (2011). "No Longer Curiously Rare but Only Just within Bounds: women in Scottish history". Women's History Review. 20 (3): 389–402.
  S2CID 143113878
  .
• Lee Jr., Maurice. "Scottish History since 1966," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp. 377 – 400.
• MacKenzie, John M (2008). "Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English Worlds? A Four-Nation Approach to the History of the British Empire". History Compass. 6 (5): 1244–1263.
  doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2008.00543.x
  .
• Morton, Graeme, and Trevor Griffiths. "Closing the Door on Modern Scotland's Gilded Cage," Scottish Historical Review (2013) Supplement, Vol. 92, pp. 49–69; on nationalism
• Raffe, Alasdair (2010). "1707, 2007, and the Unionist Turn in Scottish History" (PDF). Historical Journal. 53 (4): 1071–1083.
  S2CID 159527923
  .
• Raftery, Deirdre; et al. (2007). "Social Change and Education in Ireland, Scotland and Wales: Historiography on Nineteenth-century Schooling".
  S2CID 143116479
  .
• Smout, T. C. (2007). "Scottish History in the Universities since the 1950s". History Scotland Magazine. 7 (5): 45–50.

Primary sources

• Anderson, Alan Orr (2010). Early Sources of Scottish History, A.D. 500 to 1286. Vol. I. General Books.
  ISBN 978-1-15-221572-6
  .
• Broadie, Alexander, ed. (1997), The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology.
• Cooke, Anthony, et al. eds (1998). Modern Scottish History, 1707 To the Present: vol 5: Major Documents (Tuckwell Press) online edition.
• Statistical Accounts of Scotland (1791–1845) online, detailed local descriptions.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scottish history.

• "History of Scotland: Primary Documents" from Brigham Young University
• Scottish Timeline: Part of the Gazetteer for Scotland
• Scottish History in 33 Chapters by Andrew Lang