Brandenburg-Prussia

Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°24′E / 52.517°N 13.400°E / 52.517; 13.400
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Brandenburg-Prussia
Brandenburg-Preußen (German)
1618–1701
Coat of arms of the Margraviate of Brandenburg
Coat of arms of Ducal Prussia
Duke
 
• 1618–1619
John Sigismund
• 1619–1640
George William
• 1640–1688
Frederick William
• 1688–1701
Frederick III (Frederick I)
Historical era
Prussian independence
September 19, 1657
January 18, 1701
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Margraviate of Brandenburg
Duchy of Prussia
Duchy of Cleves
Bishopric of Minden
Duchy of Pomerania
County of Mark
County of Ravensberg
Bishopric of Halberstadt
Archbishopric of Magdeburg
Lauenburg and Bütow Land
Draheim
Kingdom of Prussia
History of Brandenburg and Prussia
Present

Brandenburg-Prussia (

Electorate of Brandenburg, the main branch of the Hohenzollern intermarried with the branch ruling the Duchy of Prussia, and secured succession upon the latter's extinction in the male line in 1618. Another consequence of intermarriage was the incorporation of the lower Rhenish principalities of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg after the Treaty of Xanten
in 1614.

The

Draheim. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679) expanded Brandenburgian Pomerania to the lower Oder
.

The second half of the 17th century laid the basis for

standing army in 1653, was symbolized by the widely noted victories in Warsaw (1656) and Fehrbellin (1675) and by the Great Sleigh Drive (1678). Brandenburg-Prussia also established a navy and German colonies in the Brandenburger Gold Coast and Arguin. Frederick William, known as "The Great Elector", opened Brandenburg-Prussia to large-scale immigration ("Peuplierung") of mostly Protestant refugees from all across Europe ("Exulanten"), most notably Huguenot immigration following the Edict of Potsdam
. Frederick William also started to centralize Brandenburg-Prussia's administration and reduce the influence of the estates.

In 1701,

Berlin
.

Establishment under John Sigismund (1618)

John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg to Duchess Anna of Prussia
.

The

Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg became Albert's second wife in 1550, and bore him his successor Albert Frederick.[3] In 1563, the Brandenburgian branch of the Hohenzollern was granted the right of succession by the Polish crown.[3] Albert Frederick became duke of Prussia after Albert's death in 1568.[3] His mother died in the same year, and thereafter he showed signs of mental disorder.[3] Because of the duke's illness,[4] Prussia was governed by Albert's nephew[3] George Frederick of Hohenzollern-Ansbach-Jägersdorf (1577–1603).[1] In 1573, Albert Frederick married Marie Eleonore of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, with whom he had several daughters.[4]

In 1594, Albert Frederick's then 14-year-old daughter

John Sigismund.[5] The marriage ensured the right of succession in the Prussian duchy as well as in Cleves.[5] Upon George Frederick's death in 1603, the regency of the Prussian duchy passed to Joachim Frederick.[1] Also in 1603, the Treaty of Gera was concluded by the members of the House of Hohenzollern, ruling that their territories were not to be internally divided in the future.[1]

The Electors of Brandenburg inherited the Duchy of Prussia upon Albert Frederick's death in 1618,

Polish Crown until 1656/7.[7] Since John Sigismund had suffered a stroke in 1616 and as a consequence was severely handicapped physically as well as mentally, his wife Anna ruled the Duchy of Prussia in his name until John Sigismund died of a second stroke in 1619, aged 47.[6]

George William, 1619–1640

George William, Elector of Brandenburg

From 1619 to 1640,

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden compelled George William to join Sweden as an ally by occupying substantial territory in Brandenburg-Prussia and concentrating an army before the town walls of Berlin.[10] George William did not conclude an alliance, but granted Sweden transit rights, two fortresses and subsidies.[10] Consequently, Roman Catholic
armies repeatedly ravaged Brandenburg and other Hohenzollern lands.

"The Great Elector", Frederick William, 1640–1688

Brandenburg-Prussia (red 1640, red and green 1688).

During the

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in Pomerania was among the most impressive.[11]

Conclusion of the Thirty Years' War

Further information: Treaty of Stettin (1630) and Treaty of Stettin (1653)
Frederick William, "Great Elector" of Brandenburg-Prussia

Frederick William took over Brandenburg-Prussia in times of a political, economical and demographic crisis caused by the war.[11] Upon his succession, the new elector retired the Brandenburgian army, but had an army raised again in 1643/44.[12] Whether or not Frederick William concluded a truce and neutrality agreement with Sweden is disputed: while a relevant 1641 document exists, it was never ratified and has repeatedly been described as a falsification. However, it is not disputed that he established the growth of Brandenburg-Prussia.[13]

At the time, the forces of the

Stettin (Szczecin) in Pomerania.[15]

The

House of Pomerania, and would have come into effect by the death of Pomeranian duke Bogislaw XIV in 1637.[12] By the Treaty of Stettin (1630) however, Bogislaw XIV had also effectively handed over control of the duchy to Sweden,[16] who refused to give in to the Brandenburgian claim. The Peace of Westphalia settled for a partition of the duchy between Brandenburg and Sweden, who determined the exact border in the Treaty of Stettin (1653).[17] Sweden retained the western part including the lower Oder (Swedish Pomerania), while Brandenburg gained the eastern part (Farther Pomerania).[17] Frederick William was dissatisfied by this outcome, and the acquisition of the whole Duchy of Pomerania was to become one of the main goals of his foreign policy.[18]

In the Peace of Westphalia, Frederick William was compensated for

French efforts to counterbalance the power of the Habsburg emperor by strengthening the Hohenzollern, and while Frederick William valued these territories lower than Western Pomerania, they became step-stones for the creation of a closed, dominant realm in Germany in the long run.[15]

Devastation

Of all Brandenburg-Prussian territories, the

Minden.[17]

Despite efforts to resettle the devastated territories, it took some of them until the mid-18th century to reach the pre-war population density.[19]

Cow War

Map of the Lower Rhenish duchies

In June 1651, Frederick William broke the provisions of the

Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg, disregarded a 1647 agreement with Frederick William which had favored the Protestants in the duchies, while Frederick William insisted that the agreement be upheld.[23] Besides these religious motives, Frederick William's invasion also aimed at territorial expansion.[22]

The conflict had the potential to spark another international war

Imperial estates as well as the local ones.[24] Politically isolated, Frederick William aborted the campaign after the Treaty of Cleves negotiated by Imperial mediators in October 1651.[24] The underlying religious dispute was only solved in 1672.[25] While military confrontations were avoided and the Brandenburg-Prussian army was primarily occupied with stealing cattle (hence the name), it considerably lowered Frederick William's reputation.[26]

Standing Army

Further information: Prussian Army
Uniforms of the Brandenburg-Prussian army in 1698

Due to his wartime experiences, Frederick William was convinced that Brandenburg-Prussia would only prevail with a standing army.[12][27] Traditionally, raising and financing army reserves was a privilege of the estates, yet Frederick William envisioned a standing army financed independently of the estates.[12] He succeeded in getting the consent and necessary financial contributions of the estates in a landtag decree of 26 July 1653.[27] In turn, he confirmed several privileges of the knights, including tax exemption, assertion of jurisdiction and police powers on their estates (Patrimonialgerichtsbarkeit) and the upholding of serfdom (Leibeigenschaft, Bauernlegen).[28]

Initially, the estates' contributions were limited to six years, yet the Frederick William obliged the estates to continue the payments thereafter and created a dedicated office to collect the contributions.[28] The contributions were confirmed by the estates in 1662, but transformed in 1666 by decree from a real estate tax to an excise tax.[28] Since 1657, the towns had to contribute not soldiers, but monetary payments to the army, and since 1665, the estates were able to free themselves from contributing soldiers by additional payments.[28] The initial army size of 8,000 men[29] had risen to 25,000[12] to 30,000 men by 1688.[29] By then, Frederick William had also accomplished his second goal, to finance the army independently of the estates.[12] By 1688, these military costs amounted to considerable 1,500,000 talers or half of the state budget.[12] Ensuring a solid financial basis for the army, undisturbed by the estates, was the foremost objective of Frederick William's administrative reforms.[30] He regarded military success as the only way to gain international reputation.[13]

Second Northern War

Further information: Treaty of Bromberg
Frederick William I in Königsberg Castle
, 1663.

The Swedish

Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the Treaty of Königsberg in January 1656.[34] The alliance proved victorious in the Battle of Warsaw in June, enhancing the elector's international reputation.[7] Continued pressure on Charles X Gustav resulted in him conceding full sovereignty in Ducal Prussia and Ermland to Frederick William by the Treaty of Labiau in November to ensure the maintenance of the alliance.[35] The Treaty of Radnot, concluded in December by Sweden and her allies, further awarded Greater Poland to Brandenburg-Prussia in case of a victory.[35]

When the anti-Swedish coalition however gained the upper hand, Frederick William changed sides when Polish king

Peace of Oliva, which ended the war in 1660.[5] Brandenburg-Prussian campaigns in Swedish Pomerania did not result in permanent gains.[37]

Dutch and Scanian Wars

Further information: Battle of Fehrbellin, Great Sleigh Drive, and Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679)
Stettin
in 1677

In 1672, the Franco-Dutch War broke out, with Brandenburg-Prussia involved as an ally of the Dutch Republic. This alliance was based on a treaty of 1669, and resulted in French occupation of Brandenburg-Prussian Cleves.[38] In June 1673, Frederick William abandoned the Dutch alliance and concluded a subsidy treaty with France, who in return withdrew from Cleves.[38] When the Holy Roman Empire declared war on France, a so-called Reichskrieg, Brandenburg-Prussia again changed sides and joined the imperial forces.[38] France pressured her ally Sweden to relieve her by attacking Brandenburg-Prussia from the north.[39] Charles XI of Sweden, dependent on French subsidies, reluctantly occupied the Brandenburgian Uckermark in 1674, starting the German theater of the Scanian War (Brandenburg-Swedish War).[39] Frederick William reacted promptly by marching his armies from the Rhine to northern Brandenburg, and encountered the rear of the Swedish army, which was in the process of crossing a swamp, in the Battle of Fehrbellin (1675).[40] Though a minor skirmish from a military perspective, Frederick William's victory turned out to be of huge symbolic significance.[41] The "Great Elector" started a counter-offensive, pursuing the retreating Swedish forces through Swedish Pomerania.[42]

Frederick William pursues Swedish troops across the frozen Curonian Lagoon; fresco by Wilhelm Simmler
, ca. 1891

Polish king

Papacy, by Polish gentry who saw the Ottomans as the greater threat, and by Polish magnates bribed by Berlin and Vienna.[45] Inner-Polish Catholic opposition to an intervention on the Protestant Hungarian rebels' side added to the resentments.[46] Thus, while Treaty of Żurawno ended the Polish-Ottoman war in 1676, Sobieski sided with the emperor instead,[46] and the plan for a Prussian campaign was dropped.[45]

By 1678, Frederick William had

Nijmegen treaties, he marched his armies east to relieve his Swedish ally, and forced Frederick William to basically return to the status quo ante bellum by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679).[38] Though the Scanian War resulted only in minor territorial gains, attaching a small strip of the Swedish Pomeranian right bank of the lower Oder to Brandenburg-Prussian Pomerania, the war resulted in a huge gain of prestige for the elector.[40]

Frederick III (I), 1688–1713

Further information: King in Prussia and Kingdom of Prussia

Frederick III of Brandenburg, since 1701 also Frederick I of Prussia, was born in Königsberg in 1657.[48] Already in the last years of the reign of his father, the friendly relations with France established after Saint Germain (1679) had cooled, not least because of the Huguenot question.[49] In 1686, Frederick William turned toward the Habsburg emperor, with whom he concluded an alliance on 22 December 1686.[49] For this alliance, Frederick William relinquished rights on Silesia in favor of the Habsburgs, and in turn received the Silesian County of Schwiebus which bordered the Neumark.[49] Frederick III, present at the negotiations as crown prince, assured the Habsburgs of the continuation of the alliance once he was in power, and secretly concluded an amendment to return Schwiebus to the Habsburgs, which he eventually did in 1694.[49] Throughout his reign, Brandenburg-Prussia remained a Habsburg ally and repeatedly deployed troops to fight against France.[49] In 1693, Frederick III began to sound out the possibility of an elevation of his status at the Habsburg court in Vienna, and while the first attempt was unsuccessful, elevation to a king remained the central goal on his agenda.[49]

The envisioned status elevation did not merely serve a decorative purpose, but was regarded a necessity to prevail in political competition.

Treaty of Rijswijk (1697).[51]

Frederick decided to raise the Duchy of Prussia to a kingdom. Within the Holy Roman Empire, no one could call himself king except the emperor and the king of Bohemia. However, Prussia was outside the empire, and the Hohenzollerns were fully sovereign over it.

Ermland, it was agreed that Frederick would call himself King in Prussia, instead of King of Prussia.[52] Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, for similar reasons as the emperor, accepted Frederick's elevation prior to the coronation.[53]

Anointment of Frederick III (I) after his coronation as King in Prussia in Königsberg, 1701.

On 17 January 1701, Frederick dedicated the royal coat of arms, the Prussian black eagle, and motto, "suum cuique".[54] On 18 January, he crowned himself and his wife Sophie Charlotte in a baroque ceremony in Königsberg Castle.[54]

On 28 January, Augustus the Strong congratulated Frederick, yet not as Polish king, but as Saxon elector.[52] In February, Denmark–Norway accepted Frederick's elevation in hope of an ally in the Great Northern War, and the Tsardom of Russia likewise approved in 1701.[53] Most princes of the Holy Roman Empire followed.[55] Charles XII of Sweden accepted Frederick as Prussian king in 1703.[53] In 1713, France and Spain also accepted Frederick's royal status.[55]

The coronation was not accepted by the

Catholic regents to not accept Frederick's royal status.[52] Until 1787, papal documents continued to speak of the Prussian kings as "Margraves of Brandenburg".[52] Neither did the Polish–Lithuanian nobility accept Frederick's royal status, seeing the Polish province of Royal Prussia endangered, and only in 1764[56] was the Prussian kingship accepted.[57]

Since Brandenburg was still legally part of the Holy Roman Empire, the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia technically continued until the empire's dissolution in 1806. However, the emperor's power was only nominal by this time, and Brandenburg soon came to be treated as a de facto province of the Prussian kingdom. Although Frederick was still only an elector within the portions of his domain that were part of the empire, he only acknowledged the emperor's overlordship over them in a formal way.

Administration

In the mid-16th century, the

Joachim II in 1541 in turn for financial aid by the estates, however, the Kreditwerk went bankrupt between 1618 and 1625.[59] The margraves further had to yield the veto of the estates in all issues concerning the "better or worse of the country", in all legal commitments, and in all issues concerning pawn or sale of the elector's real property.[59]

residence in Berlin
…during the Renaissance period
…according to the design of 1702

To reduce the influence of the estates, Joachim Frederick in 1604 created a council called Geheimer Rat für die Kurmark ("Privy Council for the Electorate"), which instead of the estates was to function as the supreme advisory council for the elector.[59] While the council was permanently established in 1613, it failed to gain any influence until 1651 due to the Thirty Years' War.[59]

Until after the Thirty Years' War, the territories of Brandenburg-Prussia were politically independent from each other,

Frederick William, who envisioned the transformation of the personal union into a real union,[27] started to centralize the Brandenburg-Prussian government with an attempt to establish the Geheimer Rat as a central authority for all territories in 1651, but this project proved to be unfeasible.[29] Instead, the elector continued to appoint a governor (Kurfürstlicher Rat) for each territory, who in most cases was a member of the Geheimer Rat.[29] The most powerful institution in the territories remained the governments of the estates (Landständische Regierung, named Oberratsstube in Prussia and Geheime Landesregierung in Mark and Cleves), which were the highest government agencies regarding jurisdiction, finances and administration.[29] The elector attempted to balance the estates' governments by creating Amtskammer chambers to administer and coordinate the elector's domains, tax income and privileges.[29] Such chambers were introduced in Brandenburg in 1652, in Cleves and Mark in 1653, in Pomerania in 1654, in Prussia in 1661 and in Magdeburg in 1680.[29] Also in 1680, the Kreditwerk came under the aegis of the elector.[28]

Frederick William's excise tax (Akzise), which since 1667 replaced the property tax raised in Brandenburg for Brandenburg-Prussia's standing army with the estates' consent, was raised by the elector without consultation of the estates.[28] The conclusion of the Second Northern War had strengthened the elector politically, enabling him to reform the constitution of Cleves and Mark in 1660 and 1661 to introduce officials loyal to him and independent of the local estates.[28] In the Duchy of Prussia, he confirmed the traditional privileges of the estates in 1663,[28] but the latter accepted the caveat that these privileges were not to be used to interfere with the exertion of the elector's sovereignty.[29] As in Brandenburg, Frederick William ignored the privilege of the Prussian estates to confirm or veto taxes raised by the elector: while in 1656, an Akzise was raised with the estates' consent, the elector by force collected taxes not approved by the Prussian estates for the first time in 1674.[29] Since 1704, the Prussian estates had de facto relinquished their right to approve the elector's taxes while formally still entitled to do so.[29] In 1682, the elector introduced an Akzise to Pomerania and in 1688 to Magdeburg,[29] while in Cleves and Mark an Akzise was introduced only between 1716 and 1720.[28] Due to Frederick William's reforms, the state income increased threefold during his reign,[30] and the tax burden per subject reached a level twice as high as in France.[60]

Under the rule of Frederick III (I), the Brandenburg Prussian territories were de facto reduced to provinces of the monarchy.[27] Frederick William's testament would have divided Brandenburg-Prussia among his sons, yet firstborn Frederick III with the emperor's backing succeeded in becoming the sole ruler based on the Treaty of Gera, which forbade a division of Hohenzollern territories.[61] In 1689, a new central chamber for all Brandenburg-Prussian territories was created, called Geheime Hofkammer (since 1713: Generalfinanzdirektorium).[62] This chamber functioned as a superior agency of the territories' Amtskammer chambers.[62] The General War Commissariat (Generalkriegskommissariat) emerged as a second central agency, superior to the local Kriegskommissariat agencies initially concerned with the administration of the army, but until 1712 transformed into an agency also concerned with general tax and police tasks.[62]

Map

Frederick William I

List of territories

Name Year of acquisition Notes
Margraviate of Brandenburg 1415 core territory, Holy Roman electorate
Duchy of Cleves 1614 Treaty of Xanten
County of Mark 1614 Treaty of Xanten
County of Ravensberg 1614 Treaty of Xanten
Duchy of Prussia 1618 succession as
Peace of Oliva
Bishopric of Minden
 1648 Peace of Westphalia
Principality of Halberstadt 1648 Peace of Westphalia
Farther Pomerania with Cammin 1653 Treaty of Grimnitz (entitlement); Peace of Westphalia (entitlement); Treaty of Stettin (incorporation); slightly enlarged by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679)
Ermland (Ermeland, Warmia) 1656
Treaty of Wehlau-Bromberg
)
Lauenburg and Bütow Land 1657 Treaty of Bromberg
Draheim
 1657 Treaty of Bromberg
Duchy of Magdeburg 1680 succession based on an entitlement by the Peace of Westphalia

(Kotulla (2008), p. 261)

Religion and immigration

Edict of Potsdam

In 1613,

Calvinism, but failed to achieve the conversion of the estates by the rule of cuius regio, eius religio.[59] Thus, on 5 February 1615, he granted the Lutherans religious freedom, while the electors court remained largely Calvinist.[59] When Frederick William I rebuilt Brandenburg-Prussia's war-torn economy, he attracted settlers from all Europe, especially by offering religious asylum, most prominently by the Edict of Potsdam which attracted more than 15,000 Huguenots.[63]

Navy and colonies

Brandenburg-Prussia established a navy and colonies during the reign of Frederick William. The "Great Elector" had spent part of his childhood at the

reichstalers.[65] As Frederick William was unable to raise this sum, he asked several people and Hanseatic towns to invest in the project, but since none of these were able or willing to give sufficient money, the treaty with Denmark was nullified in 1653.[65]

Navy

See also: Brandenburg Navy and Prussian Navy
Brandenburg-Prussian navy
Vessel
type 		Count
1675 1680 1684 1689 1696 1700
frigate 6 15 16 12 6 4
fluyt 1 0 3 4 2 0
snow 0 1 5 4 1 0
galiote 0 5 4 2 1 0
yacht 1 4 4 5 5 5
other 1 1 2 1 4 3
Source: van der Heyden (2001), p. 17.
Total number of European ships in 1669: 25,000
Total number of Dutch ships in 1669: 16,000
Source: van der Heyden (2001), p. 21.

In 1675, after the

Pillau (now Baltiysk) on the East Prussian coast, Raule established shipyards and enlarged the port facilities.[67]

After the

Pillau as the main Brandenburg-Prussian naval base.[70] From Pillau, part of the shipyard, the admiral's house and the wooden church of the employees was transferred to Emden.[70] While Emden was not part of Brandenburg-Prussia, the elector owned a nearby castle, Greetsiel, and negotiated an agreement with the town to maintain a garrison and a port.[70]

West African Gold Coast (Großfriedrichsburg)

Further information: Brandenburger Gold Coast
Lieve Pietersz Verschuier
, 1684.

In 1679, Raule presented Frederick William a plan to establish colonies in

Dutch West Indies Company, the latter confiscated the ship in March.[71] The crew of the remaining ship Morian managed to have three Guinean chieftains sign a contract on 16 May, before the Dutch expelled the vessel from the coastal waters.[71] This treaty, officially declared as trade agreement, included a clause of subjection of the chiefs to Frederick William's overlordship[71] and an agreement allowing Brandenburg-Prussia to establish a fort,[72] and is thus regarded the beginning of the Brandenburg-Prussian colonial era.[71]

To facilitate the colonial expeditions, the

Takoradi), some 30 kilometers east of Großfriedrichsburg.[77] A fourth fort was built at a spring near the village of Taccrama, between Großfriedrichsburg and Dorotheenschanze, named Loge or Sophie-Louise-Schanze.[77] Overall, the colony comprised roughly 50 kilometers of coastline, and did not extend into the hinterland.[78]

Arguin

Further information: Arguin
Fort Arguin (1721)

A second colony was established at the Arguin archipelago off the West African coast (now part of Mauritania). In contrast to the Guinean colony, Arguin had been a colony before: In 1520, Portugal had built a fort on the main island, which with all of Portugal came under Spanish control in 1580.[79] In 1638 it was conquered by the Dutch Republic, and in 1678 by France, who due to high maintenance costs abandoned it and demolished the fort soon after.[79] On 27 July 1685, an expedition was mounted by Frederick William and Raule, who took possession of the vacated colony on 1 October.[79] Subsequently, the fort was rebuilt and contacts to the indigenous population established.[80] France was alarmed and sent a vessel to re-conquer the fort in late 1687,[80] but the attack of a French frigate and a smaller vessel was beaten back by the Brandenburg-Prussian garrison.[81] The victory improved the relations to the indigenous people, many of whom were carried off as slaves by the French before.[81] While Arguin did not reach the economic importance of Großfriedrichsburg, it temporarily advanced to the world's primary staple port for slaves.[82]

Caribbean

The African colonies enabled Brandenburg-Prussia to participate in the

Charlotte Amalie, called Brandenburgery, and other territories named Krum Bay and Bordeaux Estates further west.[84] In 1688, 300 Europeans and several hundred slaves lived on the Brandenburgian estates.[85] In November 1695, French forces looted the Brandenburgian (not the Danish) colony.[86] In 1731, the Brandenburg-Prussian company on Saint Thomas (BAAC) became insolvent, and abandoned the island in 1735.[87] Their last remains were sold by auction in 1738.[87]

Brandenburg-Prussia tried to claim

Duchy of Courland agreed on a partition of Tobago, but since Courland later abandoned the territory and thus was no longer present on the island, the agreement was nullified, and negotiations with the English government which had interests in Tobago did not result in an agreement.[89] In 1695, Brandenburg-Prussia attempted to acquire Tortola from England via diplomacy, but the negotiations went nowhere, and were eventually called off.[89] Likewise, England declined an offer to purchase Sint Eustatius in 1697.[89]

See also

Sources

References

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  3. ^ a b c d e Jähnig (2006), p. 65
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  6. ^ a b Gotthard (2006), p. 86
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  8. ^ a b Nicklas (2002), pp. 214ff
  9. ^ Gotthard (2006), p. 88
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  13. ^ a b Duchhardt (2006), p. 102
  14. ^ Olesen (2003), p. 395
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  81. ^ a b van der Heyden (2001), p. 41
  82. ^ van der Heyden (2001), p. 42
  83. ^ a b Carreras & Maihold (2004), p. 15
  84. ^ a b c d Carreras & Maihold (2004), p. 16
  85. ^ Carreras & Maihold (2004), p. 17
  86. ^ Carreras & Maihold (2004), p. 21
  87. ^ a b Carreras & Maihold (2004), p. 23
  88. ^ Carreras & Maihold (2004), pp. 21–22
  89. ^ a b c d Carreras & Maihold (2004), p. 22

Bibliography

In English

  • Citino, Robert Michael (2005). The German way of war. From the Thirty Years' War to the Third Reich. Modern war studies. University Press of Kansas.
    ISBN 0-7006-1410-9
    .
  • Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947 (2008)
  • Frost, Robert I (2004). After the Deluge. Poland-Lithuania and the Second Northern War, 1655-1660. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History. Cambridge University Press.
    ISBN 0-521-54402-5
    .
  • ISBN 83-01-00392-8
  • Leathes, Stanley Mordaunt; Ward, Adolphus William; Prothero, George Walter, eds. (1964). The Cambridge Modern History. Vol. 1. CUP Archive.
  • Gagliardo, John G. Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 (1991) online edition Archived 2007-11-27 at the Wayback Machine
  • Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany. Vol 2: 1648–1840 (1962)
  • Hughes, Michael. Early Modern Germany, 1477–1806 (1992)
  • Ogilvie, Sheilagh. Germany: A New Social and Economic History, Vol. 1: 1450–1630 (1995) 416pp; Germany: A New Social and Economic History, Vol. 2: 1630–1800 (1996), 448pp
  • Shennan, Margaret (1995). The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia. Routledge.
    ISBN 0-415-12938-9
    .
  • Sturdy, David J. (2002). Fractured Europe, 1600-1721. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 59.
    ISBN 0-631-20513-6
    .

In German

52°31′N 13°24′E / 52.517°N 13.400°E / 52.517; 13.400

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