Paul I of Russia
Paul I | |
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St Michael's Castle, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire | |
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Catherine II of Russia | |
Religion | Russian Orthodox |
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Paul I (
He was de facto
Early years
Paul was son of
Paul was taken almost immediately after birth by the Empress Elizabeth, and had limited contact with his mother. As a boy, he was reported to be intelligent and good-looking, but sickly. His pug-nosed facial features in later life are attributed to an attack of
Under Catherine II
Empress Elizabeth died in 1762, when Paul was eight years old, and he became crown prince with the accession of his father to the throne as Peter III. However, within a matter of months, Paul's mother engineered a coup and not only deposed her husband but, for a long time, was believed to have had him killed by her supporters. It was later found that Peter III probably died due to a fit of apoplexy when exerting himself in a dispute with Prince Feodor, one of his jailers. Some historians believe that he was murdered by a vindictive
In 1772, her son and heir, Paul, turned eighteen. Paul and his adviser, Panin, believed he was the rightful tsar of Russia, as the only son of Peter III. His adviser had also taught him that the rule of women endangered good leadership, which was why he was so interested in gaining the throne. Distracting him, Catherine took trouble to find Paul a wife among the minor princesses of the
After her daughter-in-law's death, Catherine began work forthwith on the project of finding another wife for Paul, and on 7 October 1776, less than six months after the death of his first wife and their child, Paul married again. The bride was the beautiful Sophia Dorothea of Württemberg, who received the new Orthodox name Maria Feodorovna. Their first child, Alexander, was born in 1777, within a year of the wedding, and on this occasion the Empress gave Paul an estate, Pavlovsk. Paul and his wife gained leave to travel through western Europe in 1781–1782. In 1783, the Empress granted him another estate, Gatchina Palace, where he was allowed to maintain a brigade of soldiers whom he drilled on the Prussian model, an unpopular stance at the time.[6]
Relationship with Catherine the Great
Catherine and her son and heir Paul maintained a distant relationship throughout her reign. Empress Elizabeth had taken up the child and proved an obsessive but incapable caretaker, as she had not raised children of her own.[7]: 28 Paul was supervised by a variety of caregivers. Roderick McGrew briefly relates the neglect to which the infant heir was sometimes subject: "On one occasion he fell out of his crib and slept the night away unnoticed on the floor."[7]: 30 Even after Elizabeth's death, relations with Catherine hardly improved. Paul was often jealous of the favours she would shower upon her lovers. In one instance, the empress gave to one of her favourites 50,000 rubles on her birthday, while Paul received a cheap watch.[8] Paul's early isolation from his mother created a distance between them that later events would reinforce. She never considered inviting him to share her power in governing Russia. And once Paul's son Alexander was born, it appeared that she had found a more suitable heir. The use made of his name by the rebel Yemelyan Pugachev, who impersonated his father Peter, tended no doubt to render Paul's position more difficult.
Catherine's absolute power and the delicate balance of courtier status greatly influenced the relationship at Court with Paul, who openly disregarded his mother's opinions. Paul adamantly protested his father's policies, writing a veiled criticism in his Reflections, a dissertation on military reform.[8] In it he directly disparaged expansionist warfare in favour of a more defensive military policy. Unenthusiastically received by his mother, Reflections appeared a threat to her authority and added weight to her suspicion of an internal conspiracy with Paul at its centre. For a courtier to have openly supported or shown intimacy towards Paul, especially following this publication, would have meant political suicide.
Paul spent the following years away from the Imperial Court, content to remain at his private estates at Gatchina Palace with his growing family and perform Prussian drill exercises. As Catherine grew older, she became less concerned that her son attend court functions; her attentions focused primarily on the future Emperor Alexander I.
It was not until 1787 that Catherine may have in fact decided to exclude her son from succession.
Accession to the throne
Catherine suffered a stroke on 17 November 1796, and died without regaining consciousness. Paul's first act as Emperor was to inquire about and, if possible, destroy her testament, as he feared it would exclude him from succession and leave the throne to Alexander. These fears may have contributed to Paul's promulgation of the Pauline Laws, which established the strict principle of primogeniture in the House of Romanov, leaving the throne to the next male heir. As emperor, Paul sought revenge for the deposition of his father, and the coup of his mother.[citation needed]
The army, then
Purported eccentricities
Paul was idealistic and capable of great generosity, but he was also mercurial and capable of vindictiveness. In spite of doubts of his legitimacy, he greatly resembled his father, Peter III, and other Romanovs as well and shared the same character. During the first year of his reign, Paul emphatically reversed many of his mother's policies. Although he accused many of
Paul made several idiosyncratic and deeply unpopular attempts to reform the
His love of parades and ceremony was not well-liked either. He ordered that Wachtparad ("Watch parades") take place early every morning in the parade ground of the palace, regardless of the weather conditions.[10] He would personally sentence soldiers to be flogged if they made a mistake, and on one occasion ordered a Guards regiment to march to Siberia after they became disordered during maneuvers, although he changed his mind after they had walked about 10 miles (16 km).[11][12] He attempted to reform the organization of the army in 1796 by introducing The Infantry Codes, a series of guidelines for the army based largely upon show and glamour. But his greatest commander, Alexander Suvorov, completely ignored them, believing them to be worthless. At great expense, he built three palaces in or around the Russian capital. Much was made of his courtly love affair with Anna Lopukhina.
Emperor Paul also ordered the bones of
Foreign affairs
Paul's early foreign policy can largely be seen as reactions against his mother's. In foreign policy, this meant that he opposed the many expansionary wars she fought and instead preferred to pursue a more peaceful, diplomatic path. Immediately upon taking the throne, he recalled all troops outside Russian borders, including the struggling expedition Catherine II had sent to conquer Qajar Iran through the Caucasus and the 60,000 men she had promised to Britain and Austria to help them defeat the French.[14] Paul hated the French before their revolution, and afterwards, with their republican and anti-religious views, he detested them even more.[15] In addition to this, he knew French expansion hurt Russian interests, but he recalled his mother's troops primarily because he firmly opposed wars of expansion. He also believed that Russia needed substantial governmental and military reforms to avoid an economic collapse and a revolution, before Russia could wage war on foreign soil.[7]: 283
Paul offered to mediate between Austria and France through Prussia and pushed Austria to make peace, but the two countries made peace without his assistance, signing the
Another important factor in Paul's decision to go to war with France was the island of Malta, the home of the Knights Hospitaller. In addition to Malta, the Order had priories in the Catholic countries of Europe that held large estates and paid the revenue from them to the Order. In 1796, the Order approached Paul about the Priory of Poland, which had been in a state of neglect and paid no revenue for 100 years, and was now on Russian land.[16]: 46–48 Paul as a child had read the histories of the Order and was impressed by their honor and connection to the old order it represented. He relocated the Priories of Poland to St. Petersburg in January 1797.[16]: 48 The knights responded by making him a protector of the Order in August of that same year, an honour he had not expected but, in keeping with his chivalric ideals, he happily accepted.[16]: 49–50
In June 1798,
The Russian army in Italy played the role of an auxiliary force sent to support the Austrians, though the Austrians offered the position of chief commander over all the allied armies to Alexander Suvorov, a distinguished Russian general. Under Suvorov, the allies managed to push the French out of Italy, though they suffered heavy losses.[20] However, by this point in time, cracks had started to appear in the Russo-Austrian alliance, due to their different goals in Italy. While Paul and Suvorov wanted the liberation and restoration of the Italian monarchies, the Austrians sought territorial acquisitions in Italy, and were willing to sacrifice later Russian support to acquire them.[7]: 299 The Austrians, therefore, happily saw Suvorov and his army out of Italy in 1799 to go meet up with the army of Alexander Korsakov, at the time assisting the Austrian Archduke Charles to expel the French armies currently occupying Switzerland.[21] However, the campaign in Switzerland had become a stalemate, without much activity on either side until the Austrians withdrew. Because this happened before Korsakov and Suvorov could unite their forces, the French could attack their armies one at a time, destroying Korsakov's and forcing Suvorov to fight his way out of Switzerland, suffering heavy losses.[22] Suvorov, shamed, blamed the Austrians for the terrible defeat in Switzerland, as did his furious sovereign. This defeat, combined with Austria's refusal to reinstate the old monarchies in Italy and their disrespect of the Russian flag during the taking of Ancona, led to the formal cessation of the alliance in October 1799.[23]
Although by the fall of 1799 the Russo-Austrian alliance had more or less fallen apart, Paul still cooperated willingly with the British. Together, they planned to invade the Netherlands, and through that country attack France proper. Unlike Austria, neither Russia nor Britain appeared to have any secret territorial ambitions: they both simply sought to defeat the French.[7]: 309
The
Finally, two events occurred in rapid succession that destroyed the alliance completely: first, in July 1800, the British seized a Danish frigate, prompting Paul to close the British trading factories in St. Petersburg as well as impound British ships and cargo; second, even though the allies resolved this crisis, Paul could not forgive the British for
The most original aspect of Paul I's foreign policy was his rapprochement with France after the coalition fell apart. Several scholars have argued that this change in position, radical though it seemed, made sense, as Bonaparte became
Irano-Georgian matters
In lieu of Russia's failure to honour the terms of the
Assassination
Paul's premonitions of assassination were well-founded. His attempts to force the nobility to adopt a code of chivalry alienated many of his trusted advisors. The Emperor also discovered outrageous machinations and corruption in the Russian treasury. As he had revoked Catherine's decree allowing corporal punishment of the free classes, and directed reforms that resulted in greater rights for the peasantry and provided for better treatment for serfs on agricultural estates, many of his policies greatly annoyed the nobility and induced his enemies to work out a plan of action.
A
The death of de Ribas in December 1800 delayed the assassination; but, on the night of 23 March [
Legacy
There is some evidence that Paul I was venerated as a saint among the Russian Orthodox populace,[47] even though he was never officially canonized by any of the Orthodox Churches.
Portrayals in popular culture
- In 1906, Dmitry Merezhkovsky published his tragedy Paul I; the most prominent performance of which was made on the Soviet Army Theatre's stage in 1989, with Oleg Borisov as Paul.
- The Patriot (1928 film), directed by Ernst Lubitsch, is a biopic starring Emil Jannings as Paul. It won the Best Writing Oscar at the 2nd Academy Awards. It is now mostly lost, with about one-third of the film preserved in archives.
- The Soviet film Lieutenant Kijé (1937), directed by Aleksandr Faintsimmer and based on a novella of the same name by Yury Tynyanov, satirizes Paul's obsession with rigid drill, instant obedience, and martinet discipline.
- In Sartre's novel Nausea (1938), Marquis de Rollebon, a fictional character being studied by the protagonist Antoine Roquentin, is implicit in Paul I's assassination.
- The Soviet experimental film Assa (1987) has a subplot revolving around Paul's murder; Paul is portrayed by Dmitry Dolinin .
- Poor Poor Paul (2003; Бе́дный бе́дный Па́вел) is a film about Paul's rule produced by Lenfilm, directed by Vitaliy Mel'nikov, and starring Viktor Sukhorukov as Paul and Oleg Yankovsky as Count Pahlen, who headed the conspiracy against him. The film portrays Paul more compassionately than the long-existing stories about him. The movie won the Michael Tariverdiev Prize for best music to a film at the Open Russian Film Festival Kinotavr, in 2003.
- The young Paul appears in the 2014 Russia-1 television series Ekaterina and features heavily as a main character in its second and third seasons.
- The young Paul is portrayed by Joseph Quinn in the 2019 HBO mini-series Catherine the Great.[48]
- An adult Paul is portrayed by Bruce Langley in the third season of the 2020 Hulu series The Great.
Archives
Paul's letters to his first mother-in-law, Countess Palatine Caroline of Zweibrücken, (together with letters from his first wife to her mother) are preserved in the Hessian State Archive (Hessisches Staatsarchiv Darmstadt) in Darmstadt, Germany.[49] In addition, Paul's letters to his first father-in-law, Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, (together with letters from his first wife to her father) are also preserved in the Hessian State Archive in Darmstadt.[50]
Paul's correspondence with his brother-in-law, King Frederick I of Württemberg (Maria Feodorovna's brother), written between 1776 and 1801, is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany.[51] Paul's correspondence with his parents-in-law, Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, and Friederike of Brandenburg-Schwedt, written between 1776 and 1797, is also preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart.[52]
Issue
Paul and Sophie had ten children; nine survived to adulthood (and from whom can be traced 19 grandchildren):
Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
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Alexander I, Emperor of Russia | 12 December 1777 | 19 November 1825 | m. Luise Auguste, Princess of Baden (Elizabeth Alexeiyevna) (1779–1826), and had two daughters (both died in childhood).
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Grand Duke Constantine of Russia | 27 April 1779 | 15 June 1831 | m. first Countess Joanna Grudzińska morganatically. He had with Joanna one child, Charles (b. 1821) and 3 illegitimate children: Paul Alexandrov from first relationship; Constantine Constantinovich and Constance Constantinovna from second relationship.
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Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna
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9 August 1783 | 16 March 1801 | m. Joseph, Archduke of Austria, Count Palatine of Hungary (1776–1847), and had one daughter (both mother and infant died in childbirth).
Formerly engaged with King Gustav IV of Sweden
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Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna
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13 December 1784 | 24 September 1803 | m. Friedrich Ludwig, Hereditary Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1778–1819), and had two children. |
Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna
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4 February 1786 | 23 June 1859 | m. Karl Friedrich, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1783–1853), and had four children. |
Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna | 21 May 1788 | 9 January 1819 | m. Georg, Duke of Oldenburg (1784–1812), had two sons; married Wilhelm I, King of Württemberg (1781–1864), and had two daughters. |
Grand Duchess Olga Pavlovna | 22 July 1792 | 26 January 1795 | died age 2 years, 6 months from complications of a tooth abscess. |
Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna | 7 January 1795 | 1 March 1865 | m. Willem II, King of the Netherlands (1792–1849), and had five children. |
Nicholas I, Emperor of Russia | 25 June 1796 | 18 February 1855 | m. Charlotte, Princess of Prussia (Alexandra Feodorovna) (1798–1860), and had seven children by her. |
Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich | 8 February 1798 | 9 September 1849 | m. Charlotte, Princess of Württemberg (Elena Pavlovna) (1807–1873), and had five daughters.
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Mistresses and illegitimate children
- Sophia Razumovskaya (1746–1803), lady in waiting of Catherine the Great.
- Mavra Yuryeva (1760–1828), spouse of Aleksey Vakar
- Marfa Pavlovna Musina-Yuryeva (1801–1803) – died prematurely
Ancestry
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See also
- Manifesto of three-day corvee
- Tsars of Russia family tree
Notes
- ^ Sergei Saltykov (rumoured)
References
- ^ "Мальтийский орден". Encyclopaedia of Saint Petersburg.
- ^ John T. Alexander, Catherine the Great: Life and Legend (Oxford UP, 1989) pp 3–16.
- ^ Safonov, M. M. "О происхоҗдении Павла І" [About the origin of Paul I]. history-gatchina.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 12 July 2021.
- ^ Sebag Montefiore, p. 309-310
- ^ Sebag Montefiore, p. 321-322
- ^ E. M. Almedingen, So dark a stream; a study of the Emperor Paul I of Russia, 1754-1801 (1959) pp 56–59.
- ^ ISBN 0-19-822567-9
- ^ a b Sorokin, 185.
- ISBN 0-7548-1571-4. pp. 157-187
- ^ ""Russian military parade", Alexandre Benois, 1907". Archived from the original on 2021-10-23. Retrieved 2012-09-23.
- ISBN 9781841763804. Pg. 56
- ISBN 9781841763804. p. 79
- ISBN 0-7394-2025-9.
- ^ For the Iranian expedition, see Haukeil, 349. For the 60,000 troops to Europe, see McGrew (1992), 282.
- ^ a b Haukeil, 351.
- ^ ISBN 0-916002-28-4
- ^ The 79 Grand Masters Archived 2011-11-13 at the Wayback Machine – official website of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
- ^ "History After Malta". Spirituallysmart.com. Archived from the original on 2013-05-21. Retrieved 2013-09-12.
- )
- ^ Haukei, 355-57.
- ^ Haukeil, 358.
- ^ For Archduke Charles withdrawing early, see McGrew (1992), 301. For more information on the battles Korsakov and Suvorov fought, see Haukeil, 361–62.
- ^ For a summary of the taking of Ancona, see McGrew (1992), 306. For a quick summary of all the issues involved, see Hugh Ragsdale, "A Continental System in 1801: Paul I and Bonaparte," The Journal of Modern History, 42 (1970), 70–71.
- ^ For a summary of the Netherlands campaign, see McGrew (1992), 309. For a more detailed look at the events, with a slight British bias, see Haukeil, 364.
- ^ Haukeil, 364.
- ^ For a summary, with more information on Paul growing closer to the Baltic states, see McGrew (1992), 311–12. For information on the British ambassador and their choice of Austria over Russia, see Ragsdale, "A Continental System in 1801: Paul I and Bonaparte," The Journal of Modern History, 71–72. For Napoleon's actions and Paul's feelings towards him, see Haukeil, 365.
- ^ For information on the Danish frigate, see Hugh Ragsdale, "Was Paul Bonaparte's Fool?: The Evidence of Neglected Archives," in Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign, ed. Hugh Ragsdale (Pittsburgh: University Center for International Studies, University of Pittsburgh, 1979), 80. For Paul's reaction to the seizure and then the events at Malta, see McGrew (1992), 313–14. For the date of the Maltese events, and a more English view of them, see Haukeil, 366.
- ^ For a summary of Paul's reaction, see McGrew (1992), 314. For more details, see Haukeil, 366.
- ^ For information on the military side of these measures, see McGrew (1992), 314. For information on the economic side and how Paul interacted with the Armed Neutrality, see Ragsdale, "Was Paul Bonaparte's Fool?" in Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign, 81.
- ^ Ragsdale, "A Continental System in 1801: Paul I and Bonaparte," The Journal of Modern History, 81–82.
- ^ Haukeil, 366.
- ^ For arguments about consistency and Paul's reasons to fight, see McGrew (1992), 318. For the arguments as to why Paul was willing to reach an agreement with Bonaparte, see Muriel Atkin, "The Pragmatic Diplomacy of Paul I: Russia's Relations with Asia, 1796–1801," Slavic Review, 38 (1979), 68.
- ^ Atkin, "The Pragmatic Diplomacy of Paul I," 68.
- ^ "While the British were signing treaties with Persia to protect their holding in India in the late 18th century Paul I was working with the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti and made them a protectorate of the Russian Empire in 1768 and then in 1801 Georgia was attacked by Iranian forces. This attack would push Paul I to take further steps beyond what was in place in order to protect his interests in the Caucasus. Paul I intended to annex the kingdom but he was assassinated before he could finish the decree but Alexander I, Paul I's successor, would finish the deal and provide full protection." Atkin, "The Pragmatic Diplomacy of Paul I", p. 69.
- ^ Ragsdale, "Was Paul Bonaparte's Fool?" in Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign, 88.
- ^ Gvosdev (2000), p. 85
- ^ Avalov (1906), p. 186
- ^ Gvosdev (2000), p. 86
- ^ Lang (1957), p. 249
- ^ Lang (1957), p. 251
- ^ Lang (1957), p. 247
- ^
ISBN 9781610692861. Retrieved 2019-05-27.
The plot's mastermind was Count Nikolay Alexandrovich Zubov .... Count Zubov hatched the conspiracy with Count Peter Alekseyevich Pahlen .... Allegedly financed by Zubov's sister, Olga Zherebetsova, with funds procured from her lover -- Charles Whitworth, 1st Earl Whitworth, Britain's envoy-extraordinary and minister-plenipotentiary at St. Petersburg under Catherine -- the conspirators recruited others.
- ^ Radzinsky, Edvard. Alexander II, The last great tsar Freepress, 2005. Pages 16–17.
- ^ A History of Russia by George Vernadsky, Yale University Press.
- ^ Marbot, Jean. (Oliver C. Colt, trans.) The Memoirs of General the Baron de Marbot, Volume 2, Chapter 3 "The intrigues of Count Czernicheff"
- ^ Hutchison, Robert. "A Medical Adventurer. Biographical Note on Sir James Wylie, Bart., M.D., 1758 to 1854." Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 06/1928; 21(8):1406.
- ^ Zhevakhov, Prince N. D. (1993) Reminiscences, V.2, p.273. Moscow.
- ^ Wiseman, Andreas (9 August 2018). "'Howards End' Star Joseph Quinn Set To Join Helen Mirren & Jason Clarke In HBO-Sky Drama 'Catherine The Great'". Deadline. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
- ^ "Briefe der Großfürstin Wilhelmine (Natalija) an ihre Mutter [Karoline]" [Letters from Grand Duchess Wilhelmine (Natalija) to her mother [Karoline]] (in German). Hessisches Staatsarchiv Darmstadt.
- ^ "Korrespondenz des Landgrafen Ludwig IX. mit seiner Tochter Großfürstin Natalija von Russland, seinem Schwiegersohn Großfürst Paul und dem russischen Hof" [Correspondence of Landgrave Ludwig IX. with his daughter Grand Duchess Natalija of Russia, his son-in-law Grand Duke Paul and the Russian court] (in German). Hessisches Staatsarchiv Darmstadt.
- ^ "König Friedrich (1754-1816) - Briefwechsel mit dem kaiserlichen Hause von Russland - 3. Briefwechsel mit Kaiser Paul, 1776-1801" [King Frederick (1754-1816) - Correspondence with the Imperial House of Russia - 3. Correspondence with Emperor Paul, 1776-1801] (in German). Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
- ^ "Herzog Friedrich Eugen (1732-1797) - Briefwechsel des Herzogs mit dem kaiserlichen Hause von Russland, 1776-1797" [Duke Friedrich Eugen (1732-1797) - Correspondence of the Duke with the Imperial House of Russia, 1776-1797] (in German). Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
- ^ Semen Velikiy Retrieved 20 January 2022
- ^ Genealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans [Genealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living] (in French). Bourdeaux: Frederic Guillaume Birnstiel. 1768. p. 23.
Attribution
- public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Paul I.". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- New International Encyclopedia(1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
Bibliography
- Alexander, John T. (1989). Catherine the Great: Life and Legend. Oxford University Press.
- Almedingen, E. M. (1959). So Dark a Stream: a Study of the Emperor Paul I of Russia, 1754-1801.
- Haukeil, Henry A.; Tyrrell, H. (1854). The History of Russia from the foundation of the Empire to the War with Turkey in 1877–78. Vol. 1. London: The London Printing and Publishing Company, Limited.
- Macek, Bernhard A. (2012). Haydn, Mozart und die Großfürstin: Eine Studie zur Uraufführung der "Russischen Quartette" op. 33 in den Kaiserappartements der Wiener Hofburg [Haydn, Mozart and the Grand Duchess: A study for the premiere of the "Russian Quartets" op. 33 in the imperial apartments of the Vienna Hofburg] (in German). Wien: Schloß Schönbrunn Kultur- und Betriebsges.m.b.H. ISBN 978-3-901568-72-5.
- de Madariaga, Isabel (1981). Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great. Yale U.P.
- Kamenskii, Aleksandr (1997). The Russian Empire in the Eighteenth Century: Searching for a Place in the World. pp. 265–280.
- Massie, Robert K. (2011). Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman. New York, NY: Random House.
- McGrew, Roderick E. (1979). "Paul I and the Knights of Malta". In Ragsdale, Hugh (ed.). Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign. Pittsburgh: University Center for International Studies, University of Pittsburgh. pp. 44 ff. ISBN 0-916002-28-4.
- McGrew, Roderick E. (1992). Paul I of Russia. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-822567-9. online review
- Alexander, J. T. (1993). "Review of Paul I of Russia 1754-1801, by R. E. McGrew". Russian History. 20 (1/4): 281–283. JSTOR 24657306.
- Ragsdale, Hugh, ed. (1979). Paul I: A reassessment of His Life and Reign. University of Pittsburgh: University Center for International Studies. ISBN 9780916002282.
- Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2016). The Romanovs: 1613—1918. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
- Sorokin, Iurii Alekseevich (1996). "Emperor Paul I, 1796–1801". In Raleigh, Donald J. (ed.). The Emperors and Empresses of Russia: Rediscovering the Romanovs. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-56324-759-3.
- Waliszewski, K. (1895). The Story of a Throne. London.
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External links
- Paul I of Russia at AlexanderPalace.org[self-published source]
- Works about Paul I of Russia at Open Library