Governor-General of Australia
Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia | |
---|---|
Term length | At His Majesty's pleasure (typically 5 years)[1] |
Formation | 1 January 1901 |
First holder | John Hope |
Salary | $495,000[2] |
Website | gg |
The governor-general of Australia is the representative of the
Significant functions of the governor-general include giving
In their ceremonial and community roles, the governor-general represents the nation as a whole. Domestically, this role entails attending services and commemorations, sponsoring community organisations and hosting events at one of the two official residences (
The governor-general is selected by the prime minister, but formally appointed by the monarch of Australia on the prime minister's advice.[8][9] Their term is not fixed, but they generally serve for five years by convention. From Federation in 1901 until 1965, 11 out of the 15 governors-general were British aristocrats; they included six barons, two viscounts, two earls, and one prince.[10] Since then, all but one of the governors-general have been Australian-born; the exception, Sir Ninian Stephen, arrived in Australia as a teenager. Only one governor-general, Dame Quentin Bryce (2008–2014), has been a woman. A second woman, Samantha Mostyn, will take office on 1 July 2024.[11][12][13]
Appointment
The governor-general is formally appointed by the monarch of Australia with a commission made under the authority of section 2 of the Constitution and regulated by letters patent issued by the monarch.[14][15][3] When a new governor-general is to be appointed, the current prime minister recommends a name to the monarch, who by convention accepts that recommendation.[9] Prior to the 1940s, the recommendation was made and decided by the Cabinet as a whole.[16] The monarch then permits the recommendation to be publicly announced, usually several months before the end of the existing governor-general's term. After receiving their commission, the new governor-general takes an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the monarch and an oath or affirmation of office.[15][17][18] These oaths are administered by the chief justice of Australia or another justice of the High Court.[15] Traditionally, the ceremony takes place in the Senate chamber.[9]
Tenure
The Constitution does not set a term of office, so a governor-general may continue to hold office for any agreed length of time. In recent decades the typical term of office has been five years. Some early governors-general were appointed to terms of just one year (Lord Tennyson) or two years (Lord Forster; later extended). At the end of this initial term, a commission may be extended for a short time, usually to avoid conflict with an election or during political difficulties.[6]
Three governors-general have resigned their commission. The first governor-general,
A vacancy occurs on the resignation, death, or incapacity of the governor-general. A temporary vacancy occurs when the governor-general is overseas on official business representing Australia. A temporary vacancy also occurred in 2003 when Peter Hollingworth stood aside.
Section 4 of the Constitution allows the monarch to appoint an
Dismissal
A governor-general may be recalled or dismissed by the monarch before their term is complete. By convention, this may only be upon advice from the prime minister, who retains responsibility for selecting an immediate replacement or letting the vacancy provisions take effect. The constitutional crisis of 1975 raised the possibility of the prime minister and the governor-general attempting to dismiss each other at the same time. According to William McMahon, Harold Holt considered having Lord Casey dismissed from the governor-generalship, and went as far as to have the necessary documents drawn up. Casey had twice called McMahon into Yarralumla to give him a "dressing down" over his poor relationship with Deputy Prime Minister John McEwen, which he believed was affecting the government. Holt believed that this was an improper use of his authority, but no further action was taken.[22]
Constitutional role
This article is part of a series on the |
Politics of Australia |
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The governor-general has a key role in performing constitutional duties in all branches of government.
Role in the Australian Parliament
The Constitution defines the
The governor-general also has a ceremonial role in swearing in and accepting the resignations of members of Parliament. All members must make an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the King in the presence of the governor-general or someone appointed by them before they take their seats.[29][30] On the day parliament opens, the governor-general makes a speech in the Senate (similar to the King's Speech in the UK), entirely written by the government, explaining the government's proposed legislative program.[31]
One of the most significant powers of the governor-general is the power to grant royal assent in the King's name.[28] This assent gives bills that have been passed by the houses of parliament the force of law, with effect either 28 days after being signed, on a date to be fixed later by proclamation or otherwise as provided in the act.[32] The government does not formally advise the governor-general to grant assent, but it is expected that they will act in accordance with the democratically elected houses of Parliament and assent has never been refused.[33][34]
Apart from assenting to a bill, the governor-general can also reserve a bill for the King's pleasure, that is allow the monarch to give royal assent personally to a proposed bill.[28] When the governor-general acted as a representative of the British government, this provision allowed for the governor-general to refer a bill back to the British government for review, which would then advise the monarch whether or not to grant assent.[28][35] The British government could also advise the monarch to disallow a law passed within the last two years, which would annul the law on the governor-general's proclamation or message to the houses.[36] However, since the assumption of full sovereignty and the emergence of an independent Crown of Australia, the British government no longer has these powers and the reservation power has only occasionally been used for bills that affect the monarch personally, such as the Royal Styles and Titles Act (1953 and 1973) and other bills of national significance such as the Flags Act 1953 and the Australia Act 1986.[37]
Finally, the governor-general can refer a bill back to the houses with suggested changes.[28] This has only happened when once passed, the government has realised a bill requires further amendment and requests the governor-general return the bill to the house.[37]
Role in executive government
Under the Constitution, the executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the monarch, but is exercisable by the governor-general.[38] However, such power is only exercised on the advice of ministers in accordance with the principles of responsible government. This occurs formally through the Federal Executive Council, a body of all current (and technically former) ministers that advises the governor-general.[39][40] Such advice is generally the result of decisions already made in Cabinet, the de facto highest executive body in Australia.[41] While some provisions in the Constitution refer the "Governor-General" and others to the "Governor-General in Council", this does not mean that there is in element of discretion in the former; this distinction merely indicates that that the former powers were those that were historically classified as belonging to the prerogative of the monarch alone.[24]
Many executive powers are also bestowed on the governor-general by statute. This allows the government of the day (acting through the governor-general) to perform certain acts that would otherwise require legislation. Such provision are often made where legislating may be too slow, as for the declaration of emergencies. An example this was the declaration on the advice of the health minister of a human biosecurity emergency under the Biosecurity Act 2015 in March 2020, due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic.[42][43]
Reserve powers
The reserve powers are those powers that the governor-general may exercise independently, that is in the absence of or against ministerial advice.[44][45][46] While most of these powers are listed in the Constitution, the circumstances in which they can be used with discretion is not prescribed and is a matter of convention.[47]
The reserve powers that are generally accepted are:[47][45][48][49]
- the discretion to select a prime minister if an election results in a parliament in which no party or coalition has a clear majority
- the power to dismiss a prime minister that has lost the support of the House of Representatives
- the power to refuse to dissolve the House of Representatives
The reserve powers that are the subject of greater debate are:[49][45]
- the power to refuse a double-dissolution
- the discretion to select a prime minister following the dismissal of a prime minister that has lost the support of the House of Representatives
- the power to dismiss a prime minister who is unable to obtain supply and refuses to resign or advise a dissolution
- the power to dismiss a prime minister that has broken the law
- the power to refuse royal assent
The most prominent use of the reserve powers occurred in the course of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, in which governor-general Sir John Kerr dismissed the government of Gough Whitlam and appointed opposition leader Malcolm Fraser as a caretaker prime minister while an election was held.[50] Kerr acted following the blocking of supply by the opposition controlled Senate, arguing that this gave him both the right and duty to dismiss the government when they did not resign or advise an election.[51] The event remains one of the most highly debated and controversial in Australian political history.[52]
Ceremonial role
In addition to the formal constitutional role, the governor-general has a representative and ceremonial role, though the extent and nature of that role has depended on the expectations of the time, the individual in office at the time, the wishes of the incumbent government, and the individual's reputation in the wider community. Governors-general generally become patrons of various charitable institutions, present honours and awards, host functions for various groups of people including ambassadors to and from other countries, and travel widely throughout Australia.
That role can become controversial, however, if the governor-general becomes unpopular with sections of the community. The public role adopted by
Diplomatic role
The governor-general makes state visits overseas on behalf of Australia, during which an administrator of the government is appointed.[54] The right of governors-general to make state visits was confirmed at the 1926 Imperial Conference, as it was deemed not feasible for the sovereign to pay state visits on behalf of countries other than the United Kingdom.[55] However, an Australian governor-general did not exercise that right until 1971, when Paul Hasluck visited New Zealand.[55][56] Hasluck's successor John Kerr made state visits to eight countries, but Kerr's successor Zelman Cowen made only a single state visit – to Papua New Guinea – as he wished to concentrate on travelling within Australia.[55] All subsequent governors-general have travelled widely while in office and made multiple state visits. Occasionally governors-general have made extended tours visiting multiple countries, notably in 2009 when Quentin Bryce visited nine African countries in 19 days.[57][58]
The governor-general
Military role
In World War II, there was some ambiguity about whether the governor-general had the power to declare war, with it initially assumed by Robert Menzies that the declaration of war by the United Kingdom automatically applied to Australia as well as a part of the British Empire. However, in 1941 opinion had shifted and the Curtin government advised the governor-general to declare war on several Axis powers. However, it was still unclear whether the governor-general had the constitutional power to declare war, so in addition to requesting the assignment of powers by the monarch to the governor-general, the government also requested King George V make similar proclamations of war on Australia's behalf.[68][66] No formal declarations of war have been made since World War II, although other declarations on the start and end of time of "active service" have been made in other conflicts.[66]
The powers of command-in-chief are vested in the governor-general rather than the "Governor-General in Council", however this does not denote an element of personal discretion in their exercise.
Community role
The governor-general is generally invited to become patron of various charitable and service organisations. Historically the governor-general has also served as Chief Scout of Australia. The chief scout is nominated by the Scouting Association's National Executive Committee and is invited by the president of the Scout Association to accept the appointment.[72] Bill Hayden declined the office on the grounds of his atheism, which was incompatible with the Scout Promise.[73] He did however serve as the association's patron during his term of office.
Relationship with the monarch
While the governor-general is the monarch's representative, as provided by section 2 of the Constitution,[74] the powers they exercise are solely granted by the Constitution.[75] This was not always seen to be the case however, with section 2 also providing that the governor-general may exercise other powers, subject to the Constitution, that the monarch may assign them. Additionally, the initial letters patent of Queen Victoria purported to create and empower the office of governor-general, despite their assignment already in the Constitution. This was raised as early as 1901, by Quick and Garran in their authoritative commentary of the Constitution, noting that the governor-general of Australia was distinguished from other imperial governors-general by the fact that "[t]he principal and most important of his powers and functions, legislative as well as executive, are expressly conferred on him by the terms of the Constitution itself ... not by Royal authority, but by statutory authority".[76] This view was also held by Andrew Inglis Clark, senior judge of the Supreme Court of Tasmania, who with W. Harrison Moore (a contributor to the first draft of the constitution put before the 1897 Adelaide Convention and professor of law at the University of Melbourne), postulating that the letters patent and the royal instructions issued by Queen Victoria were unnecessary "or even of doubtful legality".[77]
Additionally, it was also previously believed that the monarch retained certain powers, such as the power to declare war, appoint diplomatic officers and to grant
Certain provisions in the Constitution provide that the governor-general, specifically as the monarch's representative, is vested with the command in chief of the military[62] and is able to exercise the executive power of the federal government.[38]
Australian Solicitor-General Maurice Byers stated in 1974: "The constitutional prescription is that executive power is exercisable by the governor-general although vested in the Queen. What is exercisable is original executive power: that is, the very thing vested in the Queen by section 61. And it is exercisable by the Queen's representative, not her delegate or agent."[79]
The 1988 Constitutional Commission report explained: "the governor-general is in no sense a delegate of the Queen. The independence of the office is highlighted by changes which have been made in recent years to the Royal Instruments relating to it".[80] The changes occurred in 1984 when Queen Victoria's letters patent and instructions were revoked and replaced with new letters patent,[81] on Prime Minister Bob Hawke's advice, who stated that this would clarify the governor-general's position under the constitution.[82][83]
This remains the case even when the sovereign is in the country: Solicitor-General
the Constitution expressly vests in the Governor-General the power or duty to perform a number of the Crown's functions in the Legislature and the Executive Government of the Commonwealth... The executive power of the Commonwealth, by section 61 of the Constitution, is declared to be vested in the Queen. It is also, in the same section, declared to be "exercisable" by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative. In the face of this provision, I feel it is difficult to contend that the Queen, even though present in Australia, may exercise in person functions of executive government which are specifically assigned by the constitution to the Governor-General.
The monarch did not overturn the actions of governor-general
Privileges
Governors-general are entitled to various privileges by virtue of holding the office. These include the right to live in
Salary
The salary of the governor-general was initially set by the constitution, which fixed an annual amount of A£10,000 until the parliament decided otherwise. The Constitution also provides that the salary of the governor-general cannot be changed during his or her term of office.[87] Under the Governor-General Act 1974, each new commission has resulted in a pay increase. Today, the law ensures the salary is higher than that for the chief justice of the High Court, over a five-year period. The annual salary during Michael Jeffery's term was $365,000. Quentin Bryce's salary was $394,000.[88] The current salary is $495,000 and there is a generous pension.[2][90] Until 2001, governors-general did not pay income tax on their salary; this was changed after Elizabeth II agreed to pay tax.[88]
Official dress
Governors-general before the 1970s wore traditional court uniforms, consisting of a dark navy wool double-breasted coatee with silver oak leaf and fern embroidery on the collar and cuffs trimmed with silver buttons embossed with the Royal Arms and with bullion edged epaulettes on the shoulders, dark navy trousers with a wide band of silver oak-leaf braid down the outside seam, silver sword belt with ceremonial sword, bicorne cocked hat with plume of ostrich feathers, black patent leather Wellington boots with spurs, etc., that is worn on ceremonial occasions.[91] There is also a tropical version made of white tropical wool cut in a typical military fashion worn with a plumed helmet. However, that custom fell into disuse during the tenure of Sir Paul Hasluck with governors-general now observing informal wear day-to-day. Tasmanian governor Sir Stanley Burbury extensively lobbied his government in an attempt to regain the right to wear a uniform, going as far to contact Sir John Kerr is desparation, hoping he could contact the Palace directly.[92] However, it does not appear that he was successful.
Titles and honours
Governors-general have during their tenure the style His/Her
From the creation of the
Until 1989, all governors-general were members of the
History
Other offices named governor-general were previously used in Australia in the mid-19th century. Sir Charles FitzRoy (Governor of New South Wales from 1846 to 1855) and Sir William Denison (Governor of New South Wales from 1855 to 1861) also carried the additional title of Governor-General because their jurisdiction extended to other colonies in Australia.[95]
The office of governor-general for the Commonwealth of Australia was conceived during the debates and conventions leading up to
Early governors-general were British and were appointed by the queen or king on the recommendation of the
The early governors-general frequently sought advice on the exercise of their powers from judges of the
In 1919, Prime Minister
During the 1920s, the importance of the position declined. As a result of decisions made at the
Scullin's proposed appointment of Sir Isaac Isaacs was fiercely opposed by the British government. This was not because of any lack of regard for Isaacs personally, but because the British government considered that the choice of Governors-General was, since the 1926 Imperial Conference, a matter for the monarch's decision alone. (However, it became very clear in a conversation between Scullin and King George V's private secretary, Lord Stamfordham, on 11 November 1930, that this was merely the official reason for the objection, with the real reason being that an Australian, no matter how highly regarded personally, was not considered appropriate to be a governor-general.) Scullin was equally insistent that the monarch must act on the relevant prime minister's direct advice (the practice until 1926 was that Dominion prime ministers advised the monarch indirectly, through the British government, which effectively had a veto over any proposal it did not agree with). Scullin cited the precedents of the prime minister of South Africa, J. B. M. Hertzog, who had recently insisted on his choice of the Earl of Clarendon as governor-general of that country, and the selection of an Irishman as governor-general of the Irish Free State. Both of these appointments had been agreed to despite British government objections.
Despite these precedents, George V remained reluctant to accept Scullin's recommendation of Isaacs and asked him to consider
The usual wording of official announcements of this nature read "The King has been pleased to appoint ...", but on this occasion the announcement said merely "The King has appointed ...", and his
At the same time as the appointment of Isaacs as the first Australian-born governor-general, a separate role of British Representative in Australia (as the representative of the British government) was established, with
This right not only to advise the monarch directly, but also to expect that advice to be accepted, was soon taken up by all the other Dominion prime ministers. This, among other things, led to the Statute of Westminster 1931 and to the formal separation of the Crowns of the Dominions.
After Scullin's defeat in 1931, non-Labor governments continued to recommend British people for appointment as governor-general, but such appointments remained solely a matter between the Australian government and the monarch. In 1947, Labor appointed a second Australian Governor-General, William McKell, who was in office as the Labor premier of New South Wales. The then leader of the Opposition, Robert Menzies, called McKell's appointment "shocking and humiliating".[103]
In 1965 the Menzies conservative government appointed an Australian,
Backgrounds of governors-general
All the governors-general until 1965 were British-born, except for Australian-born
Various governors-general had previously served as governors of an Australian state or colony:
Former leading politicians and members of the judiciary have figured prominently. Lord Dudley was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1902–1905). Lord Stonehaven (as John Baird) was Minister for Transport in the Cabinets of Bonar Law and Stanley Baldwin; and after his return to Britain he became Chairman of the UK Conservative Party. Sir Isaac Isaacs was successively Commonwealth Attorney-General, a High Court judge, and Chief Justice. Sir William McKell was Premier of New South Wales. Lord Dunrossil (as William Morrison) was Speaker of the UK House of Commons. Lord De L'Isle was Secretary of State for Air in Winston Churchill's cabinet from 1951 to 1955. More recent governors-general in this category include Lord Casey, Sir Paul Hasluck, Sir John Kerr, Sir Ninian Stephen, Bill Hayden and Sir William Deane.
Of the eleven Australians appointed governor-general since 1965,
Significant post-retirement activities of earlier Governors-General have included: Lord Tennyson was appointed
Timeline of governors-general
See also
- History of Australia
- Constitutional history of Australia
- Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia
- Governors of the Australian states
- Viceregal consort of Australia
- Armorial of the governors-general of Australia
- British Empire
- Royal Australian Air Force VIP aircraft
- Governor-general (links to other countries which have Governors-General)
- Australian VIP transport
- Musical composition Earl's March written by Australian author Walter J. Turner in 1889 dedicated to Adrian Hope, while in office.
References
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- ^ a b Governor-General Act 1974 (Cth) s 3
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- ^ Karp, Paul; Cox, Lisa (16 December 2018). "David Hurley named next governor general of Australia". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
- ^ Flemming, Tessa (3 April 2024). "Anthony Albanese announces Samantha Mostyn as Australia's next governor-general". ABC News (Australia).
- ^ a b "The role of the Governor-General". The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 5 January 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
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- ^ "How is the governor-general appointed and what is their role?". Parliamentary Education Office. 14 December 2023.
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: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ Twomey, Anne (19 April 2017). "Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister". The Conversation. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
- ^ "Reserve Powers and the Whitlam dismissal". Rule of Law Education Centre. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
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- ^ a b Stephen, Ninian (21 June 1983). "The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief". Governor General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018.
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It seems clear that no question of any reserve power lurks within the terms of s.68 and practical considerations make it essential, even were constitutional ones not also to require it, that the Governor-General should have no independent discretion conferred upon him by that section...
- ^ Malcolm Fraser and Margaret Simons (2011). Malcolm Fraser: The Political Memoirs. The Miegunyah Press. p. 206.
- ^ Fraser & Simons (2011), p. 222.
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- ^ Australian Constitution (Cth) s 2. "A Governor-General appointed by the Queen shall be Her Majesty's representative in the Commonwealth, and shall have and may exercise in the Commonwealth during the Queen's pleasure, but subject to this Constitution, such powers and functions of the Queen as her Majesty may be pleased to assign to him."
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: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ Quick, John; Garran, Robert Randolph (1901). The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth. Sydney: Angus & Robertson. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2017. p 390 .
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: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ Office of Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia – Principal – Letters Patent – 21 August 1984, Prerogative Instrument – C2004Q00670[1] Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "David Smith, The Role of the Governor-General". Archived from the original on 12 March 2005. Retrieved 11 February 2005.
- ^ Statement by the Prime Minister to the House of Representatives, Parliamentary Debates, Vol. H of R. 138, 24 August 1984, p. 380. The Prime Minister tabled a copy of the amended letters patent relating to the office of Governor-General, together with the text of a statement relating to the document, but for some unknown reason he did not read the statement to the House, nor did he seek leave to have it incorporated in Hansard. The statement was later issued by the Prime Minister's Press Office.[2] Archived 12 March 2005 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The Governor-General's Official residences". The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ a b Coleman, James (27 June 2021). "A ride in Australia's most majestic taxi: the Governor-General's Rolls-Royce". Riotact.
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- ^ a b "Herald Sun, 18 June 2008, governor-general Quentin Bryce to get pay rise".
- ^ Governor-General Act 1974 (Cth) s 4
- ^ The pension is 60% of the salary of the chief justice at the end of the governor-general's term.[89]
- ^ Dress worn at His Majesty's court : issued with the authority of the Lord Chamberlain "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 June 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) (1912), pp. 49, 50 - ^ a b Judd, Bridget; Tonkin, Leigh (19 July 2020). "There was more to the Palace letters than just the Dismissal. Here's what you might have missed". ABC News (Australia).
- ^ The title 'the Honourable' for Governors-General Archived 10 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Australian Government Special Gazette S No. 54 of 2013.
- ^ Prime Minister's media release "A New Honour for Pre-eminent Australians", 25 March 2014 Archived 25 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2 May 2014
- ^ Ross, Thomas. "Rulers: Regal and Vice-Regal". Colony and Empire. Archived from the original on 19 June 2004. Retrieved 19 June 2004.
- ^ "The role of the Queen and the Governor-General in Australian democracy". Constitution Education Fund. 17 July 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
Section 59 has never been used and section 60 has been used ten times. However, both sections ceased to operate in the 1930's when the UK Parliament introduced the Statute of Westminster.
- ^ Markwell, Donald (1999). "Griffith, Barton and the Early Governor-Generals: Aspects of Australia's Constitutional Development". Public Law Review. 10: 280.
- ^ Cunneen 1983, p. 151.
- ^ Cunneen 1983, p. 152.
- ^ Cunneen 1983, p. 164.
- ISBN 0522843670.
- ^ Gavin Souter, Acts of Parliament, p. 269
- ^ Lamont, Leonie (11 March 2004). "Signposts". Sydney Morning Herald. 37.
- ^ Squires, Nick (30 June 2007). "Australians reject role for Prince William". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
- ^ Silva, Kristian (19 September 2018). "Bill Hayden, former Labor leader, turns to God despite atheist past". ABC News. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
Further reading
- Cowen, Sir Zelman (2006). A Public Life: The Memoirs of Zelman Cowen. Melbourne: Miegunyah Press.
- Cunneen, Christopher (1983). King's Men: Australia's Governors-General from Hopetoun to Isaacs. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-86861-238-3.
- Gerangelos, George A., ed. (2013). Winterton's Australian Federal Constitutional Law (3 ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Thomson Reuters. ISBN 978-0-45523-041-2.
- ISBN 0-207-18769-X. (pp 515, 519, 548)
- Markwell, Donald (1999). "Griffith, Barton and the Early Governor-Generals: Aspects of Australia's Constitutional Development". Public Law Review. 10: 280.
- ISBN 9781925501155.
- ISBN 978-1-86287-918-8.