Hell

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This article is about the abode of the dead in various cultures and religious traditions around the world. For other uses, see Hell (disambiguation).

Medieval illustration of hell in the Hortus deliciarum manuscript of Herrad of Landsberg (about 1180)
Hell – detail from a fresco in the medieval church of St Nicholas in Raduil, Bulgaria
Belief in hell by country (2017–2020)

In

Dharmic religions. Religions typically locate hell in another dimension or under Earth's surface. Other afterlife destinations include heaven, paradise, purgatory, limbo, and the underworld
.

Other religions, which do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward, merely describe an abode of the dead, the

Kur, Hades, and Sheol). Such places are sometimes equated with the English word hell, though a more correct translation would be "underworld" or "world of the dead". The ancient Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman, and Finnic
religions include entrances to the underworld from the land of the living.

Overview

Etymology

Hel, a goddess-like figure, in the location of the same name
, which she oversees

The modern English word hell is derived from Old English hel, helle (first attested around 725 AD to refer to a nether world of the dead) reaching into the

Proto-Germanic feminine noun *xaljō or *haljō ('concealed place, the underworld'). In turn, the Proto-Germanic form derives from the o-grade form of the Proto-Indo-European root *kel-, *kol-: 'to cover, conceal, save'.[2] Indo-European cognates include Latin cēlāre ("to hide", related to the English word cellar) and early Irish ceilid ("hides"). Upon the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples, extensions of the Proto-Germanic *xaljō were reinterpreted to denote the underworld in Christian mythology[1][3] (see Gehenna
).

Related early Germanic terms and concepts include Proto-Germanic *xalja-rūnō(n), a feminine compound noun, and *xalja-wītjan, a neutral compound noun. This form is reconstructed from the Latinized Gothic plural noun *haliurunnae (attested by

rune.[4] The second element in the Gothic haliurunnae may however instead be an agent noun from the verb rinnan ("to run, go"), which would make its literal meaning "one who travels to the netherworld".[5][6]

Proto–Germanic *xalja-wītjan (or *halja-wītjan) is reconstructed from Old Norse hel-víti 'hell', Old English helle-wíte 'hell-torment, hell', Old Saxon helli-wīti 'hell', and the Middle High German feminine noun helle-wīze. The compound is a compound of *xaljō (discussed above) and *wītjan (reconstructed from forms such as Old English witt 'right mind, wits', Old Saxon gewit 'understanding', and Gothic un-witi 'foolishness, understanding').[7]

Religion, mythology, and folklore

Hell appears in several

mythologies and religions. It is commonly inhabited by demons and the souls of dead people. A fable about hell which recurs in folklore across several cultures is the allegory of the long spoons.[citation needed
]

Punishment

Preserved colonial wall paintings of 1802 depicting Hell,[8][9][10] by Tadeo Escalante, inside the Church of San Juan Bautista in Huaro, Peru

Punishment in hell typically corresponds to

The Divine Comedy, but sometimes they are general, with condemned sinners relegated to one or more chamber of hell or to a level of suffering.[citation needed
]

In many religious cultures, including Christianity and Islam, hell is often depicted as fiery, painful, and harsh, inflicting suffering on the guilty.[11] Despite these common depictions of hell as a place of fire, some other traditions portray hell as cold. Buddhist – and particularly Tibetan Buddhist – descriptions of hell feature an equal number of hot and cold hells. Among Christian descriptions Dante's Inferno portrays the innermost (9th) circle of hell as a frozen lake of blood and guilt.[12] But cold also played a part in earlier Christian depictions of hell or purgatory, beginning with the

Vision of Dryhthelm" by the Venerable Bede from the seventh century;[14] "St Patrick's Purgatory", "The Vision of Tundale" or "Visio Tnugdali", and the "Vision of the Monk of Eynsham", all from the twelfth century;[15] and the "Vision of Thurkill" from the early thirteenth century.[16]

Polytheism

Africa

The hell of Swahili mythology is called kuzimu, and belief in it developed in the 7th and 8th century under the influence of Muslim merchants at the East African coast.[17] It is imagined as a very cold place.[17] Serer religion rejects the general notion of heaven and hell.[18] In Serer religion, acceptance by the ancestors who have long departed is as close to any heaven as one can get. Rejection and becoming a wandering soul is a sort of hell for one passing over. The souls of the dead must make their way to Jaaniw (the sacred dwelling place of the soul). Only those who have lived their lives on earth in accordance with Serer doctrines will be able to make this necessary journey and thus be accepted by the ancestors. Those who cannot make the journey become lost and wandering souls, but they do not burn in "hell fire".[18][19]

According to the Yoruba mythology, there is no hellfire. Wicked people (guilty of e.g. theft, witchcraft, murder, or cruelty[20]) are confined to Orun Apaadi (heaven of potsherds), while the good people continue to live in the ancestral realm, Orun Baba Eni (heaven of our fathers).[21]

Ancient Egypt

gods, records the result. If his heart is lighter than the feather, Hunefer is allowed to pass into the afterlife. If not, he is eaten by the crocodile-headed Ammit.[22]

With the rise of the cult of

torment of a rich man, who lacked charity, when he dies and compares it to the blessed state of a poor man who has also died.[27]
Divine pardon at judgment always remained a central concern for the ancient Egyptians.[28]

Modern understanding of Egyptian notions of hell relies on six ancient texts:[29]

  1. The Book of Two Ways (Book of the Ways of Rosetau)
  2. The Book of Amduat (Book of the Hidden Room, Book of That Which Is in the Underworld)
  3. The Book of Gates
  4. The Book of the Dead (Book of Going Forth by Day)
  5. The Book of the Earth
  6. The Book of Caverns

Asia

The hells of Asia include the

Bagobo "Gimokodan" (which is believed to be more of an otherworld, where the Red Region is reserved who those who died in battle, while ordinary people go to the White Region)[30] and in Dharmic religions, "Kalichi" or "Naraka
".

According to a few sources, hell is below ground, and described as an uninviting wet[31] or fiery place reserved for sinful people in the Ainu religion, as stated by missionary John Batchelor.[32] However, belief in hell does not appear in oral tradition of the Ainu.[33] Instead, there is belief within the Ainu religion that the soul of the deceased (ramat) would become a kamuy after death.[33] There is also belief that the soul of someone who has been wicked during lifetime, committed suicide, got murdered or died in great agony would become a ghost (tukap) who would haunt the living,[33] to come to fulfillment from which it was excluded during life.[34]

In Taoism, hell is represented by Diyu.

Ancient Mesopotamia

Main article: Ancient Mesopotamian underworld
Underworld by galla
demons

The

Kur,[36]: 114  and was believed to be ruled by the goddess Ereshkigal.[35][37]: 184  All souls went to the same afterlife,[35] and a person's actions during life had no effect on how the person would be treated in the world to come.[35]

The souls in Kur were believed to eat nothing but dry dust[36]: 58  and family members of the deceased would ritually pour libations into the dead person's grave through a clay pipe, thereby allowing the dead to drink.[36]: 58  Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that the goddess Inanna, Ereshkigal's younger sister, had the power to award her devotees with special favors in the afterlife.[35][38] During the Third Dynasty of Ur, it was believed that a person's treatment in the afterlife depended on how he or she was buried;[36]: 58  those that had been given sumptuous burials would be treated well,[36]: 58  but those who had been given poor burials would fare poorly.[36]: 58 

The entrance to Kur was believed to be located in the

Irkalla. During the Akkadian Period, Ereshkigal's role as the ruler of the underworld was assigned to Nergal, the god of death.[35][37]: 184  The Akkadians attempted to harmonize this dual rulership of the underworld by making Nergal Ereshkigal's husband.[35]

Europe

See also: Hel (location) and Nav (Slavic folklore)

The hells of Europe include Breton mythology's "Anaon",

Sami mythology and Finnish "Tuonela
" ("manala").

Ancient Greece and Rome

Main article: Tartarus

In classic

Ancient Greek: Τάρταρος). It is either a deep, gloomy place, a pit or abyss used as a dungeon of torment and suffering that resides within Hades (the entire underworld) with Tartarus being the hellish component. In the Gorgias, Plato (c. 400 BC) wrote that souls of the deceased were judged after they paid for crossing the river of the dead and those who received punishment were sent to Tartarus.[39] As a place of punishment, it can be considered a hell. The classic Hades, on the other hand, is more similar to Old Testament Sheol. The Romans later adopted these views
.

Abrahamic religions

Hell is conceived of in most Abrahamic religions as a place of, or a form of, punishment.[40]

Judaism

See also: Gehenna, Qlippoth, and Sheol

Gehinnom. Gehinnom is not hell, but originally a grave and in later times a sort of Purgatory where one is judged based on one's life's deeds, or rather, where one becomes fully aware of one's own shortcomings and negative actions during one's life. The Kabbalah explains it as a "waiting room" (commonly translated as an "entry way") for all souls (not just the wicked). The overwhelming majority of rabbinic thought maintains that people are not in Gehinnom forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be 12 months, however, there has been the occasional noted exception. Some consider it a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent to Olam Habah
(heb. עולם הבא; lit. "The world to come", often viewed as analogous to heaven). This is also mentioned in the Kabbalah, where the soul is described as breaking, like the flame of a candle lighting another: the part of the soul that ascends being pure and the "unfinished" piece being reborn.

According to Jewish teachings, hell is not entirely physical; rather, it can be compared to a very intense feeling of shame. People are ashamed of their misdeeds and this constitutes suffering which makes up for the bad deeds. When one has so deviated from the will of

teshuva (return) are said to be always open, and so one can align his will with that of God at any moment. Being out of alignment with God's will is itself a punishment according to the Torah
.

Many scholars of Jewish mysticism, particularly of the Kabbalah, describe seven "compartments" or "habitations" of hell, just as they describe seven divisions of heaven. These divisions go by many different names, and the most frequently mentioned are as follows:[41]

  • Sheol (Hebrew: שְׁאוֹל – "underworld", "Hades"; "grave")
  • Abaddon (Hebrew: אֲבַדּוֹן – "doom", "perdition")
  • Be'er Shachat (Hebrew: בְּאֵר שַׁחַת, Be'er Shachath – "pit of corruption")
  • Tit ha-Yaven (Hebrew: טִיט הַיָוֵן – "clinging mud")
  • Sha'are Mavet (Hebrew: שַׁעֲרֵי מָוֶת, Sha'arei Maveth – "gates of death")
  • Tzalmavet (Hebrew: צַלמָוֶת, Tsalmaveth – "shadow of death")
  • Hinnom"; "Tartarus", "Purgatory
    ")

Besides those mentioned above, there also exist additional terms that have been often used to either refer to hell in general or to some region of the underworld:

  • Azazel (Hebrew: עֲזָאזֵל, compd. of ez עֵז: "goat" + azal אָזַל: "to go away" – "goat of departure", "scapegoat"; "entire removal", "damnation")
  • Dudael (Hebrew: דּוּדָאֵל – lit. "cauldron of God")
  • Tehom (Hebrew: תְהוֹם – "abyss"; "sea", "deep ocean")[42]
  • Tophet (Hebrew: תֹּפֶת or תוֹפֶת, Topheth – "fire-place", "place of burning", "place to be spit upon"; "inferno")[43][44]
  • Tzoah Rotachat (Hebrew: צוֹאָה רוֹתֵחַת, Tsoah Rothachath – "boiling excrement")[45]
  • Mashchit (Hebrew: מַשְׁחִית, Mashchith – "destruction", "ruin")
  • Dumah (Hebrew: דוּמָה – "silence")
  • Neshiyyah (Hebrew: נְשִׁיָּה – "oblivion", "Limbo")
  • Bor Shaon (Hebrew: בּוֹר שָׁאוֹן – "cistern of sound")
  • Eretz Tachtit (Hebrew: אֶרֶץ תַּחְתִּית, Erets Tachtith – "lowest earth").[46][47]
  • Masak Mavdil (Hebrew: מָסָך מַבְדִּ֔יל, Masak Mabdil – "dividing curtain")
  • Haguel (
    Ethiopic: ሀጉለ – "(place of) destruction", "loss", "waste")[48]
  • Ethiopic: አክይስት – "serpents", "dragons"; "place of future punishment")[49][50]

Maimonides declares in his 13 principles of faith that the hells of the rabbinic literature were pedagogically motivated inventions to encourage respect of the Torah commandments by mankind, which had been regarded as immature.[51] Instead of being sent to hell, the souls of the wicked would actually get annihilated.[52]

Christianity

Main articles: Hell in Christianity and Christian views on Hades
Valley of Hinnom
, 2007
heaven
by James Tissot
Harrowing of Hell. Christ leads Adam by the hand, c.1504
The Last Judgment, Hell, c.1431, by Fra Angelico

The Christian doctrine of hell derives from passages in the New Testament. The English word hell does not appear in the Greek New Testament; instead one of three words is used: the Greek words Tartarus or Hades, or the Hebrew word Gehinnom.

In the

which?] Christians have believed that the souls of those who die either rest peacefully, in the case of Christians, or are afflicted, in the case of the damned, after death until the resurrection.[54]

Hebrew OT Septuagint Greek NT times in NT Vulgate
KJV
NIV
שְׁאוֹל (Sheol)[55] Ἅιδης (Haïdēs)[56] ᾌδης (Ádēs)[57] x10[58] infernus[59] Hell Hades
גֵיא בֶן־הִנֹּם (Ge Hinom)[60] Εννομ (Ennom)[61] γέεννα (géenna)[62] x11[63] gehennae[64]/gehennam[65] Hell Hell
(Not applicable) (Not applicable) Ταρταρόω (Tartaróō)[66] x1 tartarum[67] Hell Hell

While these three terms are translated in the KJV as "hell" they have three very different meanings.

  • Hades has similarities to the Old Testament term, Sheol as "the place of the dead" or "grave". Thus, it is used in reference to both the righteous and the wicked, since both wind up there eventually.[68]
  • Gehenna refers to the "Valley of Hinnom", which was a garbage dump outside of Jerusalem. It was a place where people burned their garbage and thus there was always a fire burning there.[contradictory] Bodies of those deemed to have died in sin without hope of salvation (such as people who committed suicide) were thrown there to be destroyed.[69] Gehenna is used in the New Testament as a metaphor for the final place of punishment for the wicked after the resurrection.[70]
  • Tartaróō (the verb "throw to
    1 Enoch
    as the place of incarceration of the fallen angels. It mentions nothing about human souls being sent there in the afterlife.

According to the Roman Catholic Church, the Council of Trent taught, in the 5th canon of its 14th session, that damnation is eternal: "...the loss of eternal blessedness, and the eternal damnation which he has incurred..."[71]

The

universal reconciliation (see below), even though it contradicts the traditional doctrines that are usually held by the evangelicals within their denominations.[79] Regarding the belief in hell, the interpretation of Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus is also relevant.[80]

Some modern Christian theologians subscribe to the doctrines of conditional immortality. Conditional immortality is the belief that the soul dies with the body and does not live again until the resurrection. As with other Jewish writings of the Second Temple period, the New Testament text distinguishes two words, both translated "hell" in older English Bibles: Hades, "the grave", and Gehenna where God "can destroy both body and soul".[81] A minority of Christians read this to mean that neither Hades nor Gehenna are eternal but refer to the ultimate destruction of the wicked in the Lake of Fire in a consuming fire after resurrection. However, because of the Greek words used in translating from the Hebrew text, the Hebrew ideas have become confused with Greek myths and ideas. In the Hebrew text when people died they went to Sheol, the grave[82] and the wicked ultimately went to Gehenna and were consumed by fire. The Hebrew words for "the grave" or "death" or "eventual destruction of the wicked", were translated using Greek words and later texts became a mix of mistranslation, pagan influence, and Greek myth.[83]

resurrection of the dead
.

Biblical scholars looking at the issue through the Hebrew text have denied the teaching of innate immortality.

Cardinal Vincent Nichols, the most senior Catholic in England and Wales, said "there's nowhere in Catholic teaching that actually says any one person is in hell".[88] The 1993 Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "This state of definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed is called 'hell'"[89] and "they suffer the punishments of hell, 'eternal fire'".[90] The chief punishment of hell is eternal separation from God" (CCC 1035). During an Audience in 1999, Pope John Paul II commented: "images of hell that Sacred Scripture presents to us must be correctly interpreted. They show the complete frustration and emptiness of life without God. Rather than a place, hell indicates the state of those who freely and definitively separate themselves from God, the source of all life and joy."[91]

Other denominations

The

grave
at the second coming. These verses, it is argued, indicate that death is only a period or form of slumber.

Adventists teach that the resurrection of the righteous will take place shortly after the second coming of Jesus, as described in Revelation 20:4–6 that follows Revelation 19:11–16, whereas the resurrection of the wicked will occur after the millennium, as described in Revelation 20:5 and 20:12–13 that follow Revelation 20:4 and 6–7, though Revelation 20:12–13 and 15 actually describe a mixture of saved and condemned people being raised from the dead and judged. Adventists reject the traditional doctrine of hell as a state of everlasting conscious torment, believing instead that the wicked will be permanently destroyed after the millennium by the lake of fire, which is called 'the second death' in Revelation 20:14.

Those Adventist doctrines about death and hell reflect an underlying belief in: (a) conditional immortality (or conditionalism), as opposed to the

human beings, in which the soul is not separable from the body, as opposed to bipartite or tripartite
conceptions, in which the soul is separable.

Jehovah's Witnesses hold that the soul ceases to exist when the person dies[94] and therefore that hell (Sheol or Hades) is a state of non-existence.[94] In their theology, Gehenna differs from Sheol or Hades in that it holds no hope of a resurrection.[94] Tartarus is held to be the metaphorical state of debasement of the fallen angels between the time of their moral fall (Genesis chapter 6) until their post-millennial destruction along with Satan (Revelation chapter 20).[95]

Bible Students and Christadelphians also believe in annihilationism.

universal reconciliation, the belief that all human souls will be eventually reconciled with God and admitted to heaven.[96] This belief is held by some Unitarian-Universalists.[97][98][99]

According to Emanuel Swedenborg's Second Coming Christian revelation, hell exists because evil people want it.[100] They, not God, introduced evil to the human race.[101] In Swedenborgianism, every soul joins the like-minded group after death in which it feels the most comfortable. Hell is therefore believed to be a place of happiness for the souls which delight in evilness.[102]

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teach that hell is a state between death and resurrection, in which those spirits who did not repent while on earth must suffer for their own sins (Doctrine and Covenants 19:15–17[103]). After that, only the Sons of perdition, who committed the Eternal sin, would be cast into Outer darkness. However, according to Mormon faith, committing the Eternal sin requires so much knowledge that most persons cannot do this.[104] Satan and Cain are counted as examples of Sons of perdition.

Islam

Main article: Jahannam
Gabriel, visit Jahannam
. Persian, 15th century.
The Tree of Zaqqum that grows in Jahannam (Hell), whose dwellers are compelled to eat the bitter fruit for eternity.

In Islam,

Muslim modernists downplay the vivid descriptions of hell common during Classical period, on one hand reaffirming that the afterlife must not be denied, but simultaneously asserting its exact nature remains unknown. Other modern Muslims continue the line of Sufism as an interiorized hell, combining the eschatological thoughts of Ibn Arabi and Rumi with Western philosophy.[105] Although disputed by some scholars, most scholars consider jahannam to be eternal.[110][105] There is belief that the fire which represents the own bad deeds can already be seen during the Punishment of the Grave, and that the spiritual pain caused by this can lead to purification of the soul.[111] Not all Muslims and scholars agree whether hell is an eternal destination or whether some or all of the condemned will eventually be forgiven and allowed to enter paradise.[109][112][113][114][excessive citations
]

Over hell, a narrow bridge called

zabaniyya, who have been created from the fires of hell.[119] Muhammad said that the fire of Jahannam is 70 times hotter than ordinary fire, and is much more painful than ordinary fire.[120]

Seven stages of punishment

The seven gates of jahannam, mentioned in the Quran, inspired Muslim exegetes (tafsir) to develop a system of seven stages of hell, analogue to the seven doors of paradise. The stages of hell get their names by seven different terms used for hell throughout the Quran. Each is assigned for a different type of sinners. The concept later accepted by Sunni authorities list the levels of hell as follows, although some stages may vary:[121][122]

  1. Jahannam (جهنم Gehenna)
  2. Laza (لظى fierce blaze)
  3. Hutama (حُطَمَة crushing fire)
  4. Sa'ir (سعير raging fire)
  5. Saqar (سقر scorching fire)
  6. Jahim (جحيم furnace)
  7. Hawiya (هاوية infernal abyss)

The highest level (jahannam) is traditionally thought of as a type of purgatory reserved for Muslims. Polytheism (shirk) is regarded as a particularly grievous sin; therefore entering Paradise is forbidden to a polytheist (mushrik) because his place is hell;[123] and the second lowest level (jahim) only after the bottomless pit for the hypocrites (hawiyah), who claimed aloud to believe in God and his messenger but in their hearts did not.[124]

Gatekeepers
  • Sukha'il (صوخائيل) of Jahannam
  • Tufa'il (طوفائيل) of Laza
  • Tafta'il (طفطائيل) of Sa'ir
  • Susbabil (صوصَابيل) of Saqar
  • Tarfatil (طرفاطيل) of Jahim
  • Istafatabil (اصطافاطابيل) of Hawiya

[125]

In the heavens

Muhammad requests Malik to show him Hell during his heavenly journey. Miniature from The David Collection.

Although the earliest reports about

Isra and Mi'raj.[105] The doors to hell are either in the third[126] or fifth heaven,[127][105] or (although only implicitly) in a heaven close God's throne,[126] or directly after entering heaven,[128] whereupon Muhammad requests a glaze at hell. Ibn Hisham gives extensive details about Muhammad visiting hell and its inhabitants punished wherein, but can only endure watching the punishments of the first layer of hell.[129] Muhammad meeting Malik, the Dajjal and hell, was used as a proof for Muhammad's Night Journey.[130]

Beneath the earth

Medieval sources often identified hell with the seven earths mentioned in

harsh angels, scorpions and serpents, who torment the sinners. They described thorny shrubs, seas filled with blood and fire and darkness only illuminated by the flames of hell.[105] One popular concept arrange the earths as follows:[131][132]

  1. Adim or Ramaka (رمکا) - the surface, on which humans, animals and jinn live on.
  2. Basit or Khawfa (خوفا)
  3. Thaqil or 'Arafa (عرفه) - anthechamber
  4. Batih or Hadna (حدنه) - a valley with stream of boiling sulphur.
  5. Hayn or Dama (دمَا)
  6. Quran 83:7
  7. Nar as-Samum, Zamhareer or As-Saqar / Athara,[133] or Hanina (حنينا) - venomous wind of fire and a cold wind of ice.

Baháʼí Faith

In the Baháʼí Faith, the conventional descriptions of hell and heaven are considered to be symbolic representations of spiritual conditions. The Baháʼí writings describe closeness to God to be heaven, and conversely, remoteness from God as hell.[134] The Baháʼí writings state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it finally attains God's presence.[135]

Eastern religions

Buddhism

Main article: Naraka (Buddhism)
Naraka in the Burmese representation

In "Devaduta Sutta", the 130th discourse of the

Avīci (Sanskrit and Pali for "without waves"). The Buddha's disciple, Devadatta
, who tried to kill the Buddha on three occasions, as well as create a schism in the monastic order, is said to have been reborn in the Avici hell.

Like all realms of rebirth in Buddhism, rebirth in the hell realms is not permanent, though suffering can persist for eons before being reborn again.[

Pratyekabuddha himself, emphasizing the temporary nature of the hell realms. Thus, Buddhism teaches to escape the endless migration of rebirths (both positive and negative) through the attainment of Nirvana
.

The

Ksitigarbha
, according to the Ksitigarbha Sutra, made a great vow as a young girl to not reach Nirvana until all beings were liberated from the hell realms or other unwholesome rebirths. In popular literature, Ksitigarbha travels to the hell realms to teach and relieve beings of their suffering.

Hinduism

Main article: Naraka (Hinduism)
Yami and Chitragupta
17th-century painting from Government Museum, Chennai
.

Early Vedic religion does not have a concept of hell. The Rigveda mentions three realms, bhūr (the earth), svar (the sky) and bhuvas or antarikṣa (the middle area, i.e. air or atmosphere). In later Hindu literature, especially the law books and the Puranas, more realms are mentioned, including a realm similar to hell, called Naraka. Yama as the first born human (together with his twin sister Yamī), by virtue of precedence, becomes ruler of men and a judge on their departure.

In the law-books (the

Kauravas both going to heaven. At first Yudhishthira goes to heaven, where he sees Duryodhana enjoying the realm; Indra tells him that Duryodhana is in heaven as he had adequately performed his Kshatriya duties. Then he shows Yudhishthira hell, where it appears his brothers are. Later it is revealed that this was a test for Yudhishthira and that his brothers and the Kauravas are all in heaven, and live happily in the divine abode of the devas. Various hells are also described in various Puranas and other scriptures. The Garuda Purana
gives a detailed account of each hell and its features; it lists the amount of punishment for most crimes, much like a modern-day penal code.

It is believed[

Madhva, time in hell is not regarded as eternal damnation within Hinduism.[136]

According to Brahma Kumaris, the Iron Age (Kali Yuga) is regarded as hell.

Jainism

Main article: Naraka (Jainism)
17th-century cloth painting depicting seven levels of Jain Hell and various tortures suffered in them. Left panel depicts the demi-god and his animal vehicle presiding over each Hell.

In Jain cosmology, Naraka (translated as hell) is the name given to realm of existence having great suffering. However, a Naraka differs from the hells of Abrahamic religions as souls are not sent to Naraka as the result of a divine judgment and punishment. Furthermore, length of a being's stay in a Naraka is not eternal, though it is usually very long and measured in billions of years. A soul is born into a Naraka as a direct result of his or her previous karma (actions of body, speech and mind), and resides there for a finite length of time until his karma has achieved its full result. After his karma is used up, he may be reborn in one of the higher worlds as the result of an earlier karma that had not yet ripened.

The hells are situated in the seven grounds at the lower part of the universe. The seven grounds are:

  1. Ratna prabha
  2. Sharkara prabha
  3. Valuka prabha
  4. Panka prabha
  5. Dhuma prabha
  6. Tamaha prabha
  7. Mahatamaha prabha

The hellish beings are a type of souls which are residing in these various hells. They are born in hells by sudden manifestation.

Tattvarthasutra, following are the causes for birth in hell:[138]

  1. Killing or causing pain with intense passion
  2. Excessive attachment to things and worldly pleasure with constantly indulging in cruel and violent acts
  3. Vowless and unrestrained life[139]

Meivazhi

According to Meivazhi, the purpose of all religions is to guide people to heaven.[140] However, those who do not approach God and are not blessed by Him are believed to be condemned to hell.[141]

Sikhism

In Sikh thought, heaven and hell are not places for living hereafter, they are part of spiritual topography of man and do not exist otherwise. They refer to good and evil stages of life respectively and can be lived now and here during our earthly existence.[142] For example, Guru Arjan explains that people who are entangled in emotional attachment and doubt are living in hell on this Earth i.e. their life is hellish.

So many are being drowned in emotional attachment and doubt; they dwell in the most horrible hell.

— Guru Arjan, Guru Granth Sahib 297[143]

Taoism

Ancient Taoism had no concept of hell, as morality was seen to be a man-made distinction and there was no concept of an immaterial soul. In its home country China, where Taoism adopted tenets of other religions, popular belief endows Taoist hell with many deities and spirits who punish sin in a variety of horrible ways.

Buddhist hells became "so much a part of [many Daoist sects] that during funeral services[,] the priests hang up scrolls depicting" similar scenes.[144] Typically, Daoist hells are "said to be ten in number" and "are sometimes said to be situated under a high mountain in Sichuan".[144] "Each is ruled by a king serving as judge, surrounded by ministers and attendants who carry out his decisions."[144] Punishment is usually "inflicted with the use of torture instruments", although there are some non-physical and more metaphysical punishments.[144] However, this type of Daoist hell is usually not final and a soul will make a journey of refining by going through at least several hells and their punishments until it is reincarnated into another body in the human world.[144]

Chinese folk beliefs

Main article: Diyu
Ming Dynasty

Diyu is the realm of the dead in

Yanluo Wang
, the King of hell, Diyu is a maze of underground levels and chambers where souls are taken to atone for their earthly sins.

Incorporating ideas from Taoism and Buddhism as well as traditional Chinese folk religion, Diyu is a kind of purgatory place which serves not only to punish but also to renew spirits ready for their next incarnation. There are many deities associated with the place, whose names and purposes are the subject of much conflicting information.

The exact number of levels in Chinese hell – and their associated deities – differs according to the Buddhist or Taoist perception. Some speak of three to four 'Courts', other as many as ten.

Yama
. Each Court deals with a different aspect of atonement. For example, murder is punished in one Court, adultery in another. According to some Chinese legends, there are eighteen levels in hell. Punishment also varies according to belief, but most legends speak of highly imaginative chambers where wrong-doers are sawn in half, beheaded, thrown into pits of filth or forced to climb trees adorned with sharp blades.

However, most legends agree that once a soul (usually referred to as a 'ghost') has atoned for their deeds and repented, he or she is given the Drink of Forgetfulness by Meng Po and sent back into the world to be reborn, possibly as an animal or a poor or sick person, for further punishment.

Other religions

Zoroastrianism

Main article:
Zoroastrian eschatology

Zoroastrian eschatology includes the belief that wicked souls will remain in Duzakh until, following the arrival of three saviors at thousand-year intervals, Ahura Mazda reconciles the world, destroying evil and resurrecting tormented souls to perfection.[145]

The sacred

Gathas mention a "House of the Lie″ for those "that are of an evil dominion, of evil deeds, evil words, evil Self, and evil thought, Liars".[146] However, the best-known Zoroastrian text to describe hell in detail is the Book of Arda Viraf.[147] It depicts particular punishments for particular sins—for instance, being trampled by cattle as punishment for neglecting the needs of work animals.[148] Other descriptions can be found in the Book of Scriptures (Hadhokht Nask), Religious Judgments (Dadestan-i Denig) and the Book of the Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom (Mainyo-I-Khard).[149]

Mandaeism

See also: World of Darkness (Mandaeism) and Ur (Mandaeism)

The Mandaeans believe in purification of souls inside of Leviathan,[150] whom they also call Ur.[151] Within detention houses, so called Matartas,[152] the detained souls would receive so much punishment that they would wish to die a Second death, which would, however, not (yet) befall their spirit.[153] At the end of days, the souls of the Mandaeans which could be purified, would be liberated out of Ur's mouth.[154] After this, Ur would get destroyed along with the souls remaining inside him,[155] so they die the second death.[156]

Wicca

The

wiccan laws" that Gerald Gardner wrote, which state that wiccan souls are privileged with reincarnation, but that the souls of wiccans who break the wiccan laws, "even under torture", would be cursed by the goddess, never be reborn on earth, and "remain where they belong, in the Hell of the Christians".[157][158] Other recognized wiccan sects do not include Gerald Gardner's "wiccan laws". The influential wiccan author Raymond Buckland
wrote that the wiccan laws are unimportant. Solitary wiccans, not involved in organized sects, do not include the wiccan laws in their doctrine.

In literature

Dante and Virgil in Hell (1850) by William-Adolphe Bouguereau
. In this painting, the two are shown watching the condemned.

In his

Dante Alighieri employed the concept of taking Virgil as his guide through Inferno (and then, in the second canticle, up the mountain of Purgatorio). Virgil himself is not condemned to hell proper in Dante's poem but is rather, as a virtuous pagan, confined to Limbo just at the edge of hell. The geography of hell is very elaborately laid out in this work, with nine concentric rings leading deeper into Earth, and deeper into the various punishments of hell, until, at the center of the world, Dante finds Satan himself trapped in the frozen lake of Cocytus
. A small tunnel leads past Satan and out to the other side of the world, at the base of the Mount of Purgatory.

A Season in Hell
 (1873). Rimbaud's poetry portrays his own suffering in a poetic form as well as other themes.

Visit to hell by Mexican artist Mauricio García Vega

Many of the great epics of European literature include episodes that occur in hell. In the Roman poet Virgil's Latin epic, the Aeneid, Aeneas descends into Dis (the underworld) to visit his father's spirit. The underworld is only vaguely described, with one unexplored path leading to the punishments of Tartarus, while the other leads through Erebus and the Elysian Fields.

The idea of hell was highly influential to writers such as

Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1793) and its inspiration from the Divine Comedy as the narrator is likewise guided through hell and heaven. Hell is portrayed here as an endless, desolate twilight city upon which night is imperceptibly sinking. The night is actually the Apocalypse
, and it heralds the arrival of the demons after their judgment. Before the night comes, anyone can escape hell if they leave behind their former selves and accept Heaven's offer, and a journey to heaven reveals that hell is infinitely small; it is nothing more or less than what happens to a soul that turns away from God and into itself.

In popular culture

Elric and Eternal Champion series. Fredric Brown wrote a number of fantasy short stories about Satan's activities in hell. Cartoonist Jimmy Hatlo created a series of cartoons about life in hell called The Hatlo Inferno, which ran from 1953 to 1958.[159]

See also

References

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  2. ^ For discussion and analysis, see Orel (2003:156) and Watkins (2000:38).
  3. ^ "hell, n. and int." OED Online, Oxford University Press, January 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/85636. Accessed 7 February 2018.
  4. ^ See discussion at Orel (2003:155–156 & 310).
  5. ^ Scardigli, Piergiuseppe, Die Goten: Sprache und Kultur (1973) pp. 70–71.
  6. ^ Lehmann, Winfred, A Gothic Etymological Dictionary (1986)
  7. ^ Orel (2003:156 & 464).
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  11. ^ Examples from the New Testament include Mark 9:43–48, Luke 16:19–24, Revelation 9:11; from the Quran, Al-Baqara verse 24, and Al-Mulk verses 5–7.
  12. ^ Alighieri, Dante (June 2001) [c. 1315]. "Cantos XXXI–XXXIV". Inferno. orig. trans. 1977. trans. John Ciardi (2 ed.). New York: Penguin.
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  14. ^ Gardiner, Visions, pp. 58 and 61.
  15. ^ Gardiner, Visions, pp. 141, 160 and 174, and 206–7.
  16. ^ Gardiner, Visions, pp. 222 and 232.
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  29. ^ "Eileen Gardiner, editor; Hell-On-Line:Egyptian Hell Texts; Book of Two Ways, Book of Amduat, Book of Gates, Book of the Dead, Book of the Earth, Book of Caverns". Archived from the original on 5 November 2015.
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  31. ^ Carl Etter (1949). Ainu Folklore: Traditions and Culture of the Vanishing Aborigines of Japan. Wilcox & Follett Company. p. 150.
  32. ^ John Batchelor: The Ainu and Their Folk-Lore, London 1901, p. 567-569.
  33. ^ a b c Takako Yamada: The Worldview of the Ainu. Nature and Cosmos Reading from Language, p. 25–37, p. 123.
  34. ^ Norbert Richard Adami: Religion und Schaminismus der Ainu auf Sachalin (Karafuto), Bonn 1989, p. 45.
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  45. ^ Rev. Edward Bouverie Pusey. What is of Faith as to Everlasting Punishment: In Reply to Dr. Farrar's Challenge in His ʻEternal Hope,' 1879. James Parker & Co., 1881; pg. 102, spelled "zoa rothachath".
  46. ^ Mew, James. Traditional Aspects of Hell: (Ancient and Modern). S. Sonnenschein & Company Lim., 1903.
  47. ^ Rev. A. Lowy. Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, Volume 10, "Old Jewish Legends of Biblical Topics: Legendary Description of Hell". 1888. pg. 339
  48. ^ Charles, Robert Henry. The Ascension of Isaiah. London. A. & C. Black, 1900. pg. 70.; synonymous with Abaddon, Sheol and Gehinnom in the sense of being the final abode of the damned.
  49. ^ Sola, David Aaron. Signification of the Proper Names, Etc., Occurring in the Book of Enoch: From the Hebrew and Chaldee Languages London, 1852.
  50. ^ Rev. X.Y.Z. Merry England, Volume 22, "The Story of a Conversion" 1894. pg. 151
  51. ^ Maimonides' Introduction to Perek Helek, ed. and transl. by Maimonides Heritage Center, p. 3–4.
  52. ^ Maimonides' Introduction to Perek Helek, ed. and transl. by Maimonides Heritage Center, p. 22-23.
  53. ^ Ecclesiastes 9:10 πάντα ὅσα ἂν εὕρῃ ἡ χείρ σου τοῦ ποιῆσαι ὡς ἡ δύναμίς σου ποίησον ὅτι οὐκ ἔστιν ποίημα καὶ λογισμὸς καὶ γνῶσις καὶ σοφία ἐν ᾅδῃ ὅπου σὺ πορεύῃ ἐκεῖ
  54. ^ Hoekema, Anthony A (1994). The Bible and the Future. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 92.
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  61. ^ "Lexicon :: Strong's H8612 – Topheth". Blue Letter Bible. BLB Institute. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 28 January 2017. καὶ ἐμίανεν τὸν Ταφεθ τὸν ἐν φάραγγι υἱοῦ Εννομ τοῦ διάγειν ἄνδρα τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ καὶ ἄνδρα τὴν θυγατέρα αὐτοῦ τῷ Μολοχ ἐν πυρί
  62. Perseus Digital Library
    , Tufts University.
  63. ^ "Lexicon :: Strong's G1067 – geenna". Blue Letter Bible. BLB Institute. Archived from the original on 30 January 2017. Retrieved 28 January 2017. Mat.5:22,29,30, 10:28, 18:09, 23:15,33. Mar. 9:43,45,47, Luk.12:05, Jak.3:6
  64. ^ "Blue Letter Bible: VUL Search Results for "gehennae"".
  65. ^ "Blue Letter Bible: VUL Search Results for "gehennam"".
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  67. ^ "Blue Letter Bible: VUL Search Results for "tartarum"".
  68. ^ Unger, Merrill F. (1981). Unger's Bible Dictionary. Chicago: Moody Bible Institute, The. p. 467.
  69. ^ The New Schaf-Herzog Encyclopedia of religious Knowledge, p. 415
  70. ^ The New Schaf-Herzog Encyclopedia of religious Knowledge pgs. 414–415
  71. ^ Council of Trent, Session 14, Canon 5
  72. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Article 1033
  73. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Article 1035
  74. ^ See Kallistos Ware, "Dare we hope for the salvation of all?" in The Inner Kingdom: Volume 1 of the Collected Works
  75. ^ "Revelation 20:11–15". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 3 December 2007.
  76. ^ "Romans 6:23". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 2 June 2008.
  77. ^ Mt 25:31, 32, 46
  78. Evangelical Methodist Church Conference
    . 15 July 2017. p. 17.
  79. ^ Gooden, Joe (4 April 2000). "Hell – it's about to get hotter". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
  80. ^ Heinrich Döring: Der universale Anspruch der Kirche und die nichtchristlichen Religionen, in: Münchener Theologische Zeitschrift 41 (1990), p. 78 et sqq.
  81. ^ "4.9 Hell". The Christadelphians. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
  82. ^ Hirsch, Emil G. "SHEOL". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
  83. ^ Bedore, Th.D., W. Edward (September 2007). "Hell, Sheol, Hades, Paradise, and the Grave". Berean Bible Society. Archived from the original on 11 July 2015. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
  84. ^ Knight (1999), A brief history of Seventh-Day Adventists, p. 42, Many biblical scholars down throughout history, looking at the issue through Hebrew rather than Greek eyes, have denied the teaching of innate immortality.
  85. ^ Pool (1998), Against returning to Egypt: Exposing and Resisting Credalism in the Southern Baptist Convention, p. 133, 'Various concepts of conditional immortality or annihilationism have appeared earlier in Baptist history as well. Several examples illustrate this claim. General as well as particular Baptists developed versions of annihilationism or conditional immortality.'
  86. ^ Stephen A. State Thomas Hobbes and the Debate Over Natural Law and Religion 2013 "The natural immortality of the soul is in fact a pagan presumption: "For men being generally possessed before the time of our Saviour, by contagion of the Daemonology of the Greeks, of an opinion, that the Souls of men were substances distinct from their Bodies, and therefore that when the Body was dead"
  87. ^ N. T. Wright For All the Saints?: Remembering the Christian Departed 2004 "many readers will get the impression that I believe that every human being comes already equipped with an immortal soul. I don't believe that. Immortality is a gift of God in Christ, not an innate human capacity (see 1 Timothy 6.16)."
  88. ^ "Vatican: Pope did not say there is no hell". BBC News. 30 March 2018. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
  89. ^ 1033
  90. ^ 1035
  91. ^ GENERAL AUDIENCE 28 July 1999, archived from the original on 13 November 2016
  92. ^ "Fundamental Beliefs Archived 10 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine" (1980) webpage from the official church website. See "25. Second Coming of Christ", "26. Death and Resurrection", "27. Millennium and the End of Sin", and "28. New Earth". The earlier 1872 and 1931 statements also support conditionalism
  93. ISBN 978-1-930987-12-8[page needed
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  94. ^ a b c "What Does the Bible Really Teach?", 2005, Published by Jehovah's Witnesses
  95. ^ "Insight on the scriptures, Volume 2", 1988, Published by Jehovah's Witnesses.
  96. ^ "What is Christian Universalism?". Archived from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2017. What is Christian Universalism by Ken Allen Th.D
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  98. ^ New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, "Hell", InterVarsity Press, 2000.
  99. ^ Evangelical Alliance Commission on Truth and Unity Among Evangelicals, The Nature of Hell, Paternoster, 2000.
  100. ^ Swedenborg, E. Heaven and its Wonders and Hell From Things Heard and Seen(Swedenborg Foundation, 1946 #545ff.)
  101. ^ Swedenborg, E. The True Christian Religion Containing the Universal Theology of The New Church Foretold by the Lord in Daniel 7; 13, 14; and in Revelation 21; 1, 2 (Swedenborg Foundation, 1946, #489ff.).
  102. ^ offTheLeftEye: The Good Thing About Hell - Swedenborg and Life, YouTube, 14 March 2016.
  103. ^ "Doctrine and Covenants 19".
  104. ^ Spencer W. Kimball: The Miracle of Forgiveness, p. 123.
  105. ^
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  106. Qur'an 7:179 Qur'an 7:179 Archived 17 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine
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  108. ^ "A Description of Hellfire (part 1 of 5): An Introduction". Religion of Islam. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
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  114. ^ Muslim Scholarly Discussions on Salvation and the Fate of 'Others' , Mohammad Hassan Khalil, p.223 "The Fitnah of Wealth", Abû Ammâr Yasir al-Qadhî
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  117. ISBN 978-0-857-73063-3
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  118. ^ ANTON M. HEINEN ISLAMIC COSMOLOGY A STUDY OF AS-SUYUTI'S al-Hay'a as-samya fi l-hay'a as-sunmya with critical edition, translation, and commentary ANTON M. HEINEN BEIRUT 1982 p. 143
  119. ^ "Surat Al-Alaq Verse 18". quran.com. 96:18 {سَنَدْعُ ٱلزَّبَانِيَةَ} {١٨ } We will call the angels of Hell. CITATION NOTE: (ٱلزَّبَانِيَةَ, transliterated to Az-Zabaniya, refers to the keeper angels of Jahannam/Hell.)
  120. ^ "Sahih Muslim 2843a". sunnah.com. The fire which sons of Adam burn is only one-seventieth part of the Fire of Hell. His Companions said: By Allah, even ordinary fire would have been enough (to burn people). Thereupon he said: It is sixty-nine parts in excess of (the heat of) fire in this world each of them being equivalent to their heat.
  121. ^ Roads to Paradise: Eschatology and Concepts of the Hereafter in Islam (2 Vols.): Volume 1: Foundations and Formation of a Tradition. Reflections on the Hereafter in the Quran and Islamic Religious Thought / Volume 2: Continuity and Change. The Plurality of Eschatological Representations in the Islamicate World. (2017). Niederlande: Brill. p. 174
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  123. Quran 5:72: 5:72 Archived 20 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine
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    JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctt1w8h1w3.12
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  127. ^ Colby, F. S. (2008). Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Tracing the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse. US: State University of New York Press. p. 137
  128. ^ Colby, F. S. (2008). Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Tracing the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse. US: State University of New York Press. p. 138
  129. ^ Lange, C. (2016). Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press.
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  131. ^ Miguel Asin Palacios Islam and the Divine Comedy Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-1-134-53650-4 page 88-89
  132. ISBN 978-81-206-0672-2
    p. 102
  133. JSTOR 25728276
    .
  134. ISBN 978-1-85168-074-0
    .
  135. ^ Baháʼu'lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of Baháʼu'lláh, ed. by US Baháʼí Publishing Trust, 1990, pp. 155-156.
  136. ^ Helmuth von Glasenapp: Der Hinduismus. Religion und Gesellschaft im heutigen Indien, Hildesheim 1978, p. 248.
  137. ^ Sanghvi, Sukhlal (1974). Commentary on Tattvārthasūtra of Vācaka Umāsvāti. trans. by K. K. Dixit. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology. pp. 107
  138. ^ Sanghvi, Sukhlal (1974) pp.250–52
  139. Mahavrata
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  140. ^ மரணம் நீக்க ஜீவ மருந்து: 9. Gods plan, YouTube, 3 August 2018.
  141. ^ Meivazhi - The True Path, angelfire.com/ms/Salai/TruePath.html.
  142. ISBN 978-8-1714-2754-3. Archived
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  143. ^ "Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib". Archived from the original on 3 September 2017.
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  145. ^ Meredith Sprunger. "An Introduction to Zoroastrianism". Archived from the original on 6 February 2007. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
  146. ^ Yasna 49:11, "Avesta: Yasna". Archived from the original on 9 October 2008. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
  147. ^ Eileen Gardiner (10 February 2006). "About Zoroastrian Hell". Archived from the original on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
  148. ^ Chapter 75, "The Book of Arda Viraf". Archived from the original on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
  149. ^ Eileen Gardiner (18 January 2009). "Zoroastrian Hell Texts". Archived from the original on 17 September 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  150. ^ Das Johannesbuch der Mandäer, ed. and transl. by Mark Lidzbarski, part 2, Gießen 1915, p. 98–99.
  151. ^ Hans Jonas: The Gnostic Religion, 3. ed., Boston 2001, p. 117.
  152. Ginza. Der Schatz oder das große Buch der Mandäer, ed. and transl. by Mark Lidzbarski
    , Quellen der Religionsgeschichte vol. 13, Göttingen 1925, p. 183.
  153. ^ Ginza, ed. and transl. by Lidzbarski, p. 185–186.
  154. ^ Kurt Rudolph: Theogonie. Kosmonogie und Anthropogonie in den mandäischen Schriften. Eine literarkritische und traditionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung, Göttingen 1965, p. 241.
  155. ^ Ginza, ed. and transl. by Lidzbarski, p. 203.
  156. ^ Ginza, ed. and transl. by Lidzbarski, p. 321.
  157. ^ Gerald Gardner, The Gardnerian Book of Shadows
  158. ^ Alex Sanders, The Alexandrian Book of Shadows
  159. ^ Sample Hatlo Inferno comic: Archived 15 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading

External links

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